criminal psychology-第11章

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ectness　came　as　without　intention；　the　circumstance　that　a　confession　had　been　made　acted　as　a　suggestion。＇1＇

Conditions　similar　to　confessional　circumstances　arise　when　other　types　of　persuasive　evidence　are　gathered；　which　have　the　same　impressive　influence　as　confessions。　In　such　cases　the　judge's　task　is　easier　than　the　witness's；　since　he　need　not　tell　them　of　evidence　already　at　hand。　How　very　much　people　allow　themselves　to　be　influenced　by　antecedent　grounds　of　suspicion　is　a　matter　of　daily　observation。　One　example　will　suffice。　An　intelligent　man　was　attacked　at　night　and　wounded。　On　the　basis　of　his　description

＇1＇　We　must　not　overlook　those　cases　in　which　false　confessions　are　the　results　of　disease；　vivid　dreams；　and　toxications；　especially　toxication　by　coal…gas。　People　so　poisoned；　but　saved　from　death；　claim　frequently　to　have　been　guilty　of　murder　（Hofman。　Gerichtliche　Medizin；　p。　676）。

　an　individual　was　arrested。　On　the　next　day　the　suspect　was　brought　before　the　man　for　identification。　He　identified　the　man　with　certainty；　but　inasmuch　as　his　description　did　not　quite　hit　off　the　suspect　he　was　asked　the　reason　for　his　certainty。　‘‘Oh；　you　certainly　would　not　have　brought　him　here　if　he　were　not　the　right　man；''　was　the　astonishing　reply。　Simply　because　the　suspect　was　arrested　on　the　story　of　the　wounded　man　and　brought　before　him　in　prison　garb；　the　latter　thought　he　saw　such　corroboration　for　his　data　as　to　make　the　identification　certaina　pure　　which　did　not　at　all　occur　to　him　in　connection　with　the　vivid　impression　of　what　he　saw。　I　believe　that　to　keep　going　with　merely　what　the　criminalist　knows　about　the　matter；　belongs　to　his　most　difficult　tasks。


Section　9。　（g）　Interest。


Anybody　who　means　to　work　honestly　must　strive　to　awaken　and　to　sustain　the　interest　of　his　collaborators。　A　judge's　duty　is　to　present　his　associates　material；　well…arranged；　systematic；　and　exhaustive；　but　not　redundant；　and　to　be　himself　well　and　minutely　informed　concerning　the　case。　Whoever　so　proceeds　may　be　certain　in　even　the　most　ordinary　and　simplest　cases；　of　the　interest　of　his　colleagues；hence　of　their　attention；　and；　in　consequence；　of　the　best　in　their　power。　These　are　essentially　self…evident　propositions。　In　certain　situations；　however；　more　is　asked　with　regard　to　the　experts。　The　expert；　whether　a　very　modest　workman　or　very　renowned　scholar；　must　in　the　first　instance　become　convinced　of　the　judge's　complete　interest　in　his　work；　of　the　judge's　power　to　value　the　effort　and　knowledge　it　requires；　of　the　fact　that　he　does　not　question　and　listen　merely　because　the　law　requires　it；　and　finally　of　the　fact　that　the　judge　is　endowed；　so　far　as　may　be；　with　a　definite　comprehension　of　the　expert's　task。

However　conscientiously　and　intensely　the　expert　may　apply　himself　to　his　problem；　it　will　be　impossible　to　work　at　it　with　real　interest　if　he　finds　no　co…operation；　no　interest；　and　no　understanding　among　those　for　whom　he；　at　least　formally；　is　at　work。　We　may　be　certain　that　the　paucity　of　respect　we　get　from　the　scientific　representatives　of　other　disciplines　（let　us　be　honest；such　is　the　case）　comes　particularly　from　those　relations　we　have　with　them　as　experts；　relations　in　which　they　find　us　so　unintelligent　and　so　indifferent　with　regard　to　matters　of　importance。　If　the　experts　　speak　of　us　with　small　respect　and　the　attitude　spreads　and　becomes　general；　we　get　only　our　full　due。　Nobody　can　require　of　a　criminal　judge　profound　knowledge　of　all　other　disciplines　besides　his　own　the　experts　supply　thatbut　the　judge　certainly　must　have　some　insight　into　them　in　so　far　as　they　affect　his　own　work；　if　he　is　not　to　meet　the　expert　unintelligent　and　unintelligible；　and　if　he　is　to　co…operate　with　and　succeed　in　appraising　the　expert's　work。　In　a　like　fashion　the　judge　may　be　required　to　take　interest　in　the　experts'　result。　If　the　judge　receives　their　report　and　sticks　to　the　statutes；　if　he　never　shows　that　he　was　anxious　about　their　verdict；　and　merely　views　it　as　a　number；　it　is　no　wonder　that　in　the　end　the　expert　also　regards　his　work　as　a　mere　number；　and　loses　interest。　No　man　is　interested　in　a　thing　unless　it　is　made　interesting；　and　the　expert　is　no　exception。　Naturally　no　one　would　say　that　the　judge　should　pretend　interest；that　would　be　worst　of　all；he　must　be　possessed　of　it；　or　he　will　not　do　for　a　judge。　But　interest　may　be　intensified　and　vitalized。　If　the　judge　perceives　that　the　finding　of　the　experts　is　very　important　for　his　case　he　must　at　least　meet　them　with　interest　in　it。　If　that　is　present　he　will　read　their　reports　attentively；　will　note　that　he　does　not　understand　some　things　and　ask　the　experts　for　elucidation。　One　question　gives　rise　to　another；　one　answer　after　another　causes　understanding；　and　understanding　implies　an　ever…increasing　interest。　It　never　happens　that　there　should　be　difficulties　because　of　a　request　to　judicial　experts　to　explain　things　to　the　judge。　I　have　never　met　any　in　my　own　practice　and　have　never　heard　any　complaints。　On　the　contrary；　pleasure　and　efficiency　are　generally　noticeable　in　such　connections；　and　the　state；　above　all；　is　the　gainer。　The　simple　explanation　lies　here　in　the　fact　that　the　expert　is　interested　in　his　profession；　interested　in　just　that　concrete　way　in　which　the　incomparably　greater　number　of　jurists　are　_*not_。　And　this　again　is　based　upon　a　sad　fact；　for　us。　The　chemist；　the　physician；　etc。；　studies　his　subject　because　he　wants　to　become　a　chemist；　physician；　etc。；　but　the　lawyer　studies　law　not　because　he　wants　to　become　a　lawyer；　but　because　he　wants　to　become　an　official；　and　as　he　has　no　especial　interest　he　chooses　his　state　position　in　that　branch　in　which　he　thinks　he　has　the　best　prospects。　It　is　a　bitter　truth　and　a　general　rulethat　those　who　want　to　study　law　and　the　science　of　law　are　the　exceptions；　and　that　hence　we　have　to　acquire　a　real　interest　in　our　subject　from　laymen；　from　our　experts。　But　the　interest　can　be　acquired；　and　with　the　growth　of　interest；　there　is　growth　of　　knowledge；　and　therewith　increase　of　pleasure　in　the　work　itself　and　hence　success。

The　most　difficult　problem　in　interest；　is　arousing　the　interest　of　witnessesbecause　this　is　purely　a　matter　of　training。　Receiving　the　attention　is　what　should　be　aimed　at　in　rousing　interest；　inasmuch　as　full　attention　leads　to　correct　testimonyi。　e。；　to　the　thing　most　important　to　our　tasks。　‘‘No　interest；　no　attention；''　says　Volkmar。＇1＇　‘‘The　absolutely　new　does　not　stimulate；　what　narrows　appreciation；　narrows　attention　also。''　The　significant　thing　for　us　is　that　‘‘the　absolutely　new　does　not　stimulate''　a　matter　often　overlooked。　If　I　tell　an　uneducated　man；　with　all　signs　of　astonishment；　that　the　missing　books　of　Tacitus'　‘‘Annals''　have　been　discovered　in　Verona；　or　that　a　completely　preserved　Dinotherium　has　been　cut　out　of　the　ice；　or　that　the　final　explanation　of　the　Martian　canals　has　been　made　at　Manora　observatory；　all　this　very　interesting　news　will　leave　him　quite　cold；　it　is　absolutely　new　to　him；　he　does　not　know　what　it　means　or　how　to　get　hold　of　it；　it　offers　him　no　matter　of　interest。＇2＇　I　should　have　a　similar　experience　if；　in　the　course　of　a　trig　case；　I　told　a　man；　educated；　but　uninterested　in　the　case；　with　joy；　that　I　had　finally　discovered　the　important　note　on　which　the　explanation　of　the　events　depended。　I　could　not　possibly　expect　interest；　attention；　and　comprehension　of　a　matter　if　my　interlocutor　knows　nothing　about　the　issue　or　the　reason　of　the　note's　importance。　And　in　spite　of　the　fact　that　everything　is　natural　and　can　be　explained　we　have　the　same　story　every　day。　We　put　the　witness　a　definite　question　that　is　of　immense　importance　to　us；　who　are　fully　acquainted　with　the　problem；　but　is　for　the　witness　detached；　incoherent；　and　therefore　barren　of　interest。　Then　who　can　require　of　an　uninterested　witness；　attention；　and　effective　and　well…considered　replies？＇3＇　I　myself　heard　a　witness　answer　a　judge　who　asked　him　about　the　weather　on　a　certain　day；　‘‘Look　here；　to　drag　me　so　many　miles　to　this　place　in　order　to　discuss　the　weather　with　me；that's。''　The　old　man　was　quite　right　because　the　detached　question　had　no　particular　purpose。　But　when　it　was　circumstantially　explained　to　him　that　the　weather　was　of　uttermost　significance　in　this　case；　how　it　was　related　thereto；　and　how　important　his　answer　would　be；　he　went　at　the　question　eagerly；

＇1＇　v。　Volkmar：　Lehrbuch　der　Psychologie。　Cothen　1875

＇2＇　K。　Haselbrunner：　Die　Lehre　von　der　Aufmerkeamkeit　Vienna　1901。

＇3＇　E。　Wiersma　and　K。　Marbe：　Untersuchungen　ber　die　sogenannten　Aufmerk…　samkeitsschwankungen。　Ztseh。　f。　Psych。　XXVI；　168　（1901）。

　and　did　everything　thinkable　in　trying　to　recall　the　weather　in　question　by　bringing　to　bear　various　associated　events；　and　did　finally　make　a　decidedly　valuable　addition　to　the　evidence。　And　this　is　the　only　way　to　capture　the　attention　of　a　witness。　If　he　is　merely　ordered　to　pay　attention；　the　result　is　the　same　as　if　he　were　ordered　to　speak　louder；he　does　it；　in　lucky　cases；　for　a　moment；　and　then　goes　on　as　before。　Attention　may　be　generated　but　not　commanded；　and　may　be　generated　successfully　with　everybody；　and　at　all　times；　if　only　the　proper　method　is　hit　upon。　The　first　and　absolute　requirement　is　to　have　and　to　show　the　same　interest　oneself。　For　it　is　impossible　to　infect　a　man　with　interest　when　you　have　no　interest　to　infect　with。　There　is　nothing　more　deadly　or　boresome　than　to　see　how　witnesses　are　examined　sleepily　and　with　tedium；　and　how　the　witnesses；　similarly　infected；　similarly　answer。　On　the　other　hand；　it　is　delightful　to　observe　the　surprising　effect　of　questions　asked　and　heard　with　interest。　Then　the　sleepiest　witnesses；　even　dull　ones；　wake　up：　the　growth　of　their　interest；　and　hence　of　their　attention；　may　be　followed　step　by　step；　they　actually　increase　in　knowledge　and　their　statements　gain　in　reliability。　And　this　simply　because　they　have　seen　the　earnestness　of　the　judge；　the　importance　of　the　issue；　the　case；　the　weighty　consequences　of　making　a　mistake；　the　gain　in　truth　through　watchfulness　and　effort；　the　avoidance　of　error　through　attention。　In　this　way　the　most　useful　testimony　can　be　obtained　from　witnesses　who；　in　the　beginning；　showed　only　despairing　prospects。

Now；　if　one　is　already　himself　endowed　with　keen　interest　and　resolved　to　awaken　the　same　in　the　witnesses；　it　is　necessary　carefully　to　consider　the　method　of　so　doing　and　how　much　the　witness　is　to　be　told　of　what　has　already　been　established；　or　merely　been　said　and　received　as　possibly　valuable。　On　the　one　hand　it　is　true　that　the　witness　can　be　roused　to　attention　and　to　more　certain　and　vigorous　responses　according　to　the　quantity　of　detail　told　him。＇1＇　On　the　other；　caution　and　other　considerations　warn　against　telling　an　unknown　witness；　whose　trustworthiness　is　not　ascertained；　delicate　and　important　matters。　It　is　especially　difficult　if　the　witness　is　to　be　told　of　presuppositions　and　combinations；　or　if　he　is　to　be　shown　how　the　case　would　alter　with　his　own　answer。　The　last　especially　has　the　effect　of　suggestion　and　must　occur　in　particular　and　in　general　at