criminal psychology-第30章

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sk　in　their　own　re…

＇1＇　Max　Mayer：　Der　Kausalzusammenhang　zwischen　Handlung　und　Erfolg　in　Strafrecht。　1899。　　von　Rohland。　Die　Kausallehre　im　Strafreeht。　Leipzig　1903　　H。　Gross's　Archiv；　XV；　191。

　searches；　and　this　is　one　of　the　reasons　for　the　criminalist's　necessary　concern　with　other　disciplines。　Of　course　no　earnest　criminalist　can　pursue　other　studies　for　their　own　sane；　he　has　no　time；　but　he　must　look　about　him　and　study　the　methods　used　in　other　sciences。　In　the　other　sciences　we　learn　method；　but　not　as　method；　and　that　is　all　that　we　need。　And　we　observe　that　the　whole　problem　of　method　is　grounded　on　causation。　Whether　empirically　or　aprioristically　does　not　matter。　We　are　concerned　solely　with　causation。

In　certain　directions　our　task　is　next　to　the　historians'　who　aim　to　bring　men　and　events　into　definite　causal　sequence。　The　causal　law　is　indubitably　the　ideal　and　only　instructive　instrument　in　the　task　of　writing　convincing　history；　and　it　is　likewise　without　question　that　the　same　method　is　specifically　required　in　the　presentation　of　evidence。　Thus：　‘‘This　is　the　causal　chain　of　which　the　last　link　is　the　crime　committed　by　A。　Now　I　present　the　fact　of　the　crime　and　include　only　those　events　which　may　be　exclusively　bound　up　with　A's　criminalityand　the　crime　appears　as　committed。　Now　again；　I　present　the　fact　of　the　crime　and　exclude　all　those　events　which　can　without　exception　be　included　only　if　A　is　not　a　criminal　and　there　is　no　crime。''＇1＇

Evidently　the　finding　of　causes　involves；　according　to　the　complexities　of　the　case；　a　varying　number　of　subordinate　tasks　which　have　to　be　accomplished　for　each　particular　incident；　inasmuch　as　each　suspicion；　each　statement　_pro_　or　_con_　has　to　be　tested。　The　job　is　a　big　one　but　it　is　the　only　way　to　absolute　and　certain　success；　provided　there　is　no　mistake　in　the　work　of　correlating　events。　As　Schell　says：　‘‘Of　all　the　observed　identities　of　effect　in　natural　phenomena　only　one　has　the　complete　strength　of　mathematical　lawthe　general　law　of　causation。　The　fact　that　everything　that　has　a　beginning　has　a　cause　is　as　old　as　human　experience。''　The　application　of　this　proposition　to　our　own　problem　shows　that　we　are　not　to　turn　the　issue　in　any　unnecessary　direction；　once　we　are　convinced　that　every　phenomenon　has　its　occasion。　We　are；　on　the　contrary；　to　demonstrate　this　occasion　and　to　bring　it　into　connection　with　every　problem　set　by　the　testimony　at　any　moment。　In　most　cases　the　task；　though　not　rigidly　divided；　is　double　and　its　quality　depends　upon　the　question　whether　the　criminal　was　known　from　the　beginning　or　not。　The　duality　is　foremost；　and　lasts

＇1＇　Cf。　S。　Strieker：　Studien　ber　die　Assoziation　der　Vorstellungen。　Vienna　1883。

　longest　if　only　the　deed　itself　is　known；　and　if　the　judge　must　limit　himself　entirely　to　its　sole　study　in　order　to　derive　from　it　its　objective　situation。

The　greatest　mistakes　in　a　trial　occur　when　this　derivation　of　the　objective　situation　of　the　crime　is　made　unintelligently；　hastily　or　carelessly；　and　conversely　the　greatest　successes　are　due　to　its　correct　rendering。　But　such　a　correct　rendering　is　no　more　than　the　thoroughgoing　use　of　the　principle　of　causality。　Suppose　a　great　crime　has　been　committed　and　the　personality　of　the　criminal　is　not　revealed　by　the　character　of　the　crime。　The　mistake　regularly　made　in　such　a　case　is　the　immediate　and　superficial　search　for　the　personality　of　the　criminal　instead　of　what　should　properly　proceedthe　study　of　the　causal　conditions　of　the　crime。　For　the　causal　law　does　not　say　that　everything　which　occurs；　taken　as　a　whole　and　in　its　elements；　has　one　groundthat　would　be　simply　categorical　emptiness。　What　is　really　required　is　an　efficient　and　satisfying　cause。　And　this　is　required　not　merely　for　the　deed　as　a　whole　but　for　every　single　detail。　When　causes　are　found　for　all　of　these　they　must　be　brought　together　and　correlated　with　the　crime　as　described；　and　then　integrated　with　the　whole　series　of　events。

The　second　part　of　the　work　turns　upon　the　suspicion　of　a　definite　person　when　his　own　activity　is　interpolated　as　a　cause　of　the　crime。　Under　some　conditions　again；　the　effect　of　the　crime　on　the　criminal　has　to　be　examined；　i。　e。；　enrichment；　deformation；　emotional　state；　etc。　But　the　evidence　of　guilt　is　established　only　when　the　crime　is　accurately　and　explicitly　described　as　the　inevitable　result　of　the　activity　of　the　criminal　and　his　activity　only。　This　systematic　work　of　observing　and　correlating　every　instant　of　the　supposed　activities　of　the　accused　（once　the　situation　of　the　crime　is　defined　as　certainly　as　possible）；　is　as　instructive　as　it　is　promising　of　success。　It　is　the　one　activity　which　brings　us　into　touch　with　bare　perception　and　its　reproduction。　‘‘All　inference　with　regard　to　facts　appears　to　depend　upon　the　relation　of　cause　to　effect；　by　virtue　of　this　relation　alone　may　we　rely　upon　the　evidence　of　our　memories　and　our　senses。''＇1＇　Hume　illustrates　this　remark　with　the　following　example：　If　a　clock　or　some　other　machine　is　found　on　a　desert　island；　the　conclusion　is　drawn　that　men　are　or　were　on　the　island。　The　application　is　easy　enough。　The　presence　of　a　clock；　the　presence　of　a　three…cornered　wound　is　perceived　by　the　sensesthat　men　were　there；　that　the　wound　was　made　with　a　specific　kind　of　in…

＇1＇　Meinong：　Humestudien。　Vienna　1882。

　strument；　is　a　causal　inference。　Simple　as　this　proposition　of　Hume's　is；　it　is　of　utmost　importance　in　the　law　because　of　the　permanent　and　continually　renewed　problems：　What　is　the　effect　in　_*this_　case？　What　is　the　cause？　Do　they　belong　together？　Remembering　that　these　questions　make　our　greatest　tasks　and　putting　them；　even　beyond　the　limit　of　disgust；　will　save　us　from　grave　errors。

There　is　another　important　condition　to　which　Hume　calls　attention　and　which　is　interpreted　by　his　clever　disciple　Meinong。　It　is　a　fact　that　without　the　help　of　previous　experience　no　causal　nexus　can　be　referred　to　an　observation；　nor　can　the　presence　of　such　be　discovered　in　individual　instances。　It　may　be　postulated　only。　A　cause　is　essentially　a　complex　in　which　every　element　is　of　identical　value。　And　this　circumstance　is　more　complicated　than　it　appears　to　be；　inasmuch　as　it　requires　reflection　to　distinguish　whether　only　one　or　more　observations　have　been　made。　Strict　self…control　alone　and　accurate　enumeration　and　supervision　will　lead　to　a　correct　decision　as　to　whether　one　or　ten　observations　have　been　made；　or　whether　the　notion　of　additional　observations　is　not　altogether　illusory。

This　task　involves　a　number　of　important　circumstances。　First　of　all　must　be　considered　the　manner　in　which　the　man　on　the　street　conceives　the　causal　relation　between　different　objects。　The　notion　of　causality；　as　Schwarz＇1＇　shows；　is　essentially　foreign　to　the　man　on　the　street。　He　is　led　mainly　by　the　analogy　of　natural　causality　with　that　of　human　activity　and　passivity；　e。　g。；　the　fire　is　active　with　regard　to　water；　which　simply　must　sizzle　passively。　This　observation　is　indubitably　correct　and　significant；　but　I　think　Schwarz　wrong　to　have　limited　his　description　to　ordinary　people；　it　is　true　also　of　very　complex　natures。　It　is　conceivable　that　external　phenomena　shall　be　judged　in　analogy　with　the　self；　and　inasmuch　as　the　latter　often　appears　to　be　purely　active；　it　is　also　supposed　that　those　natural　phenomena　which　appear　to　be　especially　active　are　really　so。

In　addition；　many　objects　in　the　external　world　with　which　we　have　a　good　deal　to　do；　and　are　hence　important；　do　as　a　matter　of　fact　really　appear　to　be　activethe　sun；　light；　warmth；　cold；　the　weather；　etc。；　so　that　we　assign　activity　and　passivity　only　according　to　the　values　the　objects　have　for　us。　The　ensuing　mistake　is　the　fact　that　we　overlook　the　alternations　between　activity　and　pas…

＇1＇　Das　Wahrnehmungsproblem　von　Standpunkte　des　Physikers；　Physiologen　und　Philosophen。　Leipzig　1892。

　sivity；　or　simply　do　not　make　the　study　such　alternations　require；　yet　the　correct　apportionment　of　action　and　reaction　is；　for　us；　of　greatest　importance。　In　this　regard；　moreover；　there　is　always　the　empty　problem　as　to　whether　two　things　may　stand　in　causal　relation；　empty；　because　the　answer　is　always　yes。　The　scientific　and　practical　problem　is　as　to　whether　there　exists　an　actual　causal　nexus。　The　same　relation　occurs　in　the　problem　of　reciprocal　influences。　No　one　will　say；　for　example；　that　any　event　exercises　a　reciprocal　influence　on　the　sun；　but　apart　from　such　relatively　few　cases　it　would　not　only　be　supposed　that　A　is　the　cause　of　the　effect　B；　but　also　that　B　might　have　reciprocally　influenced　A。　Regard　for　this　possibility　may　save　one　from　many　mistakes。

One　important　source　of　error　with　regard　to　cause　and　effect　lies　in　the　general　and　profound　supposition　that　the　cause　must　have　a　certain　similarity　to　the　effect。　So　Ovid；　according　to　J。　S。　Mill；　has　Medea　brew　a　broth　of　long…lived　animals；　and　popular　superstitions　are　full　of　such　doctrine。　The　lung　of　a　long…winded　fox　is　used　as　a　cure　for　asthma；　the　yarrow　is　used　to　cure　jaundice；　agaricos　is　used　for　blisters；　aristolochia　（the　fruit　of　which　has　the　form　of　a　uterus）　is　used　for　the　pains　of　child…birth；　and　nettle…tea　for　nettle…rash。　This　series　may　be　voluntarily　increased　when　related　to　the　holy　patron　saints　of　the　Catholic　Church；　who　are　chosen　as　protectors　against　some　especial　condition　or　some　specific　difficulty　because　they　at　one　time　had　some　connection　with　that　particular　matter。　So　the　holy　Odilia　is　the　patron　saint　for　diseases　of　the　eye；　not　because　she　knew　how　to　cure　the　eyes；　but　because　her　eyes　were　put　out　with　needles。　The　thief　Dismas　is　the　patron　of　the　dying　because　we　know　nothing　about　him　save　that　he　died　with　Christ。　St。　Barbara；　who　is　pictured　together　with　a　tower　in　which　she　was　imprisoned；　and　which　was　supposed　to　be　a　powder　house；　has　become　the　patron　saint　of　artillery。　In　the　same　manner　St。　Nicholas　is；　according　to　Simrock；　the　patron　of　sailors　because　his　name　resembles　Nichus；　Nicor；　Nicker；　which　is　the　name　of　the　unforgotten　old　German　sea…deity。

Against　such　combinations；　external　and　unjustified；　not　even　the　most　educated　and　skilful　is　safe。　Nobody　will　doubt　that　he　is　required　to　make　considerable　effort　in　his　causal　interpretation　because　of　the　sub…conscious　influence　of　such　similarities。　The　matter　would　not　be　so　dangerous；　all　in　all；　because　such　mistakes　may　be　easily　corrected　and　the　attention　of　people　may　be　called　　to　the　inadequacy　of　such　causationbut　the　reason　for　this　kind　of　correlations　is　rarely　discovered。　Either　people　do　not　want　to　tell　it　because　they　instinctively　perceive　that　their　causal　interpretation　cannot　be　justified；　or　they　cannot　even　express　it　because　the　causal　relation　had　been　assumed　only　subconsciously；　and　they　are　hence　unaware　of　the　reasons　for　it　and　all　the　more　convinced　that　they　are　right。　So　for　example；　an　intelligent　man　told　me　that　he　suspected　another　of　a　murder　because　the　latter's　mother　died　a　violent　death。　The　witness　stuck　to　his　statement：　‘‘the　man　who　had　once　had　something　to　do　with　killing　must　have　had