°®°®Ð¡ËµÍø > ÆäËûµç×ÓÊé > criminal psychology >

µÚ50ÕÂ

criminal psychology-µÚ50ÕÂ

С˵£º criminal psychology ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ3500×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡



¡¡other¡¡even¡¡though¡¡those¡¡who¡¡can¡¡see¡¡red¡¡are¡¡in¡¡the¡¡great¡¡majority¡£¡¡The¡¡red¡¡color¡¡of¡¡cinnabar¡¡exists¡¡as¡¡such¡¡only¡¡in¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡there¡¡are¡¡eyes¡¡which¡¡are¡¡similar¡¡to¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡mankind¡£¡¡As¡¡such¡¡light¡¡reflected¡¡from¡¡cinnabar¡¡may¡¡not¡¡properly¡¡be¡¡called¡¡red£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡red¡¡only¡¡for¡¡especial¡¡kinds¡¡of¡¡eyes¡£''¡¡This¡¡is¡¡so¡¡unconditionally¡¡incorrect¡¡that¡¡an¡¡impartial¡¡judge¡¡of¡¡photography¡¡says£§1£§¡¡that¡¡everything¡¡that¡¡normal¡¡eyes¡¡call¡¡violet¡¡and¡¡blue£»¡¡is¡¡very¡¡bright£»¡¡and¡¡everything¡¡they¡¡call¡¡green¡¡and¡¡red¡¡is¡¡very¡¡dark¡£¡¡The¡¡red¡­blind¡¡person¡¡will¡¡see¡¡as¡¡equal¡¡certain¡¡natural¡¡reds£»¡¡greens¡¡and¡¡gray¡­yellows£»¡¡both¡¡in¡¡intensity¡¡and¡¡shadow¡£¡¡But¡¡on¡¡the¡¡photograph¡¡he¡¡will¡¡be¡¡able¡¡to¡¡distinguish¡¡the¡¡differences¡¡in¡¡brightness¡¡caused¡¡by¡¡these¡¡three¡¡otherwise¡¡identical¡¡colors¡£¡¡We¡¡may£»¡¡therefore£»¡¡assume¡¡that¡¡colors¡¡possess¡¡_*objective_¡¡differences£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡these¡¡objective¡¡differences¡¡are¡¡perceived¡¡even¡¡by¡¡persons¡¡of¡¡normal¡¡vision¡£¡¡But¡¡whether¡¡I¡¡am¡¡able¡¡to¡¡sense¡¡the¡¡same¡¡effect¡¡in¡¡red¡¡that¡¡another¡¡senses£»¡¡and¡¡whether¡¡I¡¡should¡¡not¡¡call¡¡red¡¡blue£»¡¡if¡¡I¡¡had¡¡the¡¡color¡­vision¡¡of¡¡another£»¡¡is¡¡as¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡discover¡¡as¡¡it¡¡is¡¡useless¡£¡¡When¡¡the¡¡question¡¡of¡¡color¡¡is¡¡raised£»¡¡therefore£»¡¡we¡¡will¡¡try¡¡to¡¡discover¡¡only¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡person¡¡in¡¡question¡¡has¡¡normal¡¡color¡­¡¡vision£»¡¡or¡¡what¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡and¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡his¡¡abnormality¡¡may¡¡be¡£


£§1£§¡¡W¡£¡¡Heinrich£º¡¡bersicht¡¡der¡¡Methoden¡¡bei¡¡Untersuchung¡¡der¡¡Farbenwahr¡£¡¡nehmungen¡£¡¡Krakau¡¡1900¡£


2¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡not¡¡unimportant¡¡to¡¡know¡¡whether¡¡single¡¡tints¡¡are¡¡recognizable¡¡in¡¡the¡¡distance¡£¡¡There¡¡have¡¡been¡¡several¡¡examinations¡¡of¡¡this¡¡fact¡£¡¡Aubert£§2£§¡¡constructed¡¡double¡¡squares¡¡of¡¡ten¡¡millimeters¡¡and¡¡determined¡¡the¡¡angle¡¡of¡¡vision¡¡at¡¡which¡¡the¡¡color¡¡as¡¡such¡¡could¡¡be¡¡seen¡£¡¡His¡¡results¡¡were£º

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡COLOR¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡¡¡¡¡WHITE¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡BLACK¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡SQUARE¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡BACKGROUND¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡White¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡39''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Red¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1'¡¡43''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡59''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Light¡¡Green¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1'¡¡54''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1'¡¡49''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Dirty¡¡Red¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡3'¡¡27''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1'¡¡23''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Blue¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡5'¡¡43''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡4'¡¡17''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Brown¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡4'¡¡55''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1'¡¡23''

Light¡¡Blue¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡2'¡¡17''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1'¡¡23''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Orange¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1'¡¡8''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡0'¡¡39''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Gray¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡4'¡¡17''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡1'¡¡23''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Rose¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡2'¡¡18''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡3'¡¡99''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Yellow¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡3'¡¡27''¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡0'¡¡39''


£§2£§¡¡Physiologie¡¡der¡¡Netzha¡£ut¡£¡¡Breslau¡¡1865¡£



It¡¡is¡¡interesting¡¡to¡¡notice¡¡that¡¡the¡¡angle¡¡for¡¡blue¡¡on¡¡a¡¡white¡¡background¡¡is¡¡almost¡¡nine¡¡times¡¡that¡¡for¡¡white£»¡¡orange£»¡¡or¡¡yellow¡¡on¡¡a¡¡black¡¡background¡£¡¡In¡¡cases¡¡where¡¡colors¡¡are¡¡of¡¡importance£»¡¡therefore£»¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡discover¡¡the¡¡color¡¡and¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡its¡¡background¡¡before¡¡the¡¡accuracy¡¡of¡¡the¡¡witness¡¡can¡¡be¡¡established¡£

3¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡well¡¡known¡¡that¡¡in¡¡the¡¡diminution¡¡of¡¡brightnesses¡¡red¡¡disappears¡¡before¡¡blue£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡at¡¡night£»¡¡when¡¡all¡¡colors¡¡have¡¡disappeared£»¡¡the¡¡blue¡¡of¡¡heaven¡¡is¡¡still¡¡visible¡£¡¡So¡¡if¡¡anybody¡¡asserts¡¡that¡¡he¡¡has¡¡been¡¡able¡¡to¡¡see¡¡the¡¡blue¡¡of¡¡a¡¡man's¡¡coat¡¡but¡¡not¡¡his¡¡red¡­brown¡¡trousers£»¡¡his¡¡statement¡¡is¡¡possibly¡¡true£»¡¡while¡¡the¡¡converse¡¡would¡¡be¡¡untrue¡£¡¡But¡¡there¡¡are¡¡no¡¡reliable¡¡or¡¡consonant¡¡accounts¡¡of¡¡the¡¡order¡¡in¡¡which¡¡colors¡¡disappear¡¡in¡¡increasing¡¡darkness¡£¡¡The¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡this¡¡order¡¡would¡¡help¡¡a¡¡great¡¡deal¡¡in¡¡the¡¡administration¡¡of¡¡criminal¡¡justice¡£

4¡£¡¡The¡¡retina¡¡will¡¡not¡¡see¡¡red¡¡at¡¡the¡¡periphery£»¡¡because¡¡there¡¡are¡¡no¡¡red¡¡rods¡¡there¡£¡¡A¡¡stick¡¡of¡¡red¡¡sealing¡¡wax¡¡drawn¡¡across¡¡the¡¡eye¡¡from¡¡right¡¡to¡¡left£»¡¡appears¡¡at¡¡the¡¡periphery¡¡of¡¡the¡¡visual¡¡field¡¡to¡¡be¡¡black¡£¡¡If£»¡¡then£»¡¡a¡¡witness¡¡has¡¡not¡¡looked¡¡right¡¡at¡¡a¡¡definitely¡¡red¡¡object£»¡¡and¡¡has¡¡seen¡¡it¡¡askance£»¡¡he¡¡has¡¡certainly¡¡not¡¡observed¡¡its¡¡color¡£¡¡The¡¡experiment¡¡may¡¡be¡¡made¡¡by¡¡anybody¡£

5¡£¡¡According¡¡to¡¡Quantz£§1£§¡¡objects¡¡in¡¡less¡¡refractable¡¡colors¡¡£¨red£»¡¡orange£»¡¡yellow£»¡¡and¡¡purple£©¡¡look¡¡0¡£2¡¡to¡¡3¡£6£¥¡¡bigger¡¡against¡¡white£»¡¡while¡¡blue£»¡¡blue¡­green£»¡¡and¡¡violet¡¡objects¡¡appear¡¡from¡¡0¡£2¡¡to¡¡2¡£2£¥¡¡smaller¡£¡¡Dark¡¡and¡¡long¡­lined¡¡objects¡¡seem¡¡longer£»¡¡bright¡¡and¡¡horizontal¡¡seem¡¡wider¡£¡¡And¡¡these¡¡facts¡¡are¡¡significant¡¡when¡¡witnesses¡¡judge¡¡of¡¡size¡£


£§1£§¡¡J¡£¡¡O¡£¡¡Quantz£º¡¡The¡¡Influence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Color¡¡of¡¡Surfaces¡¡on¡¡our¡¡Estimation¡¡of¡¡their¡¡Magnitudes¡£¡¡Am¡£¡¡Journal¡¡of¡¡Psychology¡¡VII£»¡¡95¡£


6¡£¡¡If¡¡colors¡¡are¡¡observed¡¡through¡¡small¡¡openings£»¡¡especially¡¡through¡¡very¡¡small¡¡holes£»¡¡the¡¡nuances¡¡become¡¡essentially¡¡different¡¡and¡¡green¡¡may¡¡even¡¡seem¡¡colorless¡£

7¡£¡¡According¡¡to¡¡Aubert£»¡¡sparkle¡¡consists¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡one¡¡point¡¡in¡¡a¡¡body¡¡is¡¡very¡¡bright¡¡while¡¡the¡¡brightness¡¡diminishes¡¡almost¡¡absolutely¡¡from¡¡that¡¡point£»¡¡e¡£¡¡g¡££»¡¡a¡¡glancing¡¡wire¡¡has¡¡a¡¡very¡¡narrow¡¡bright¡¡line¡¡with¡¡deep¡¡shadows¡¡on¡¡each¡¡side£»¡¡a¡¡ball¡¡of¡¡mercury¡¡in¡¡a¡¡thermometer£»¡¡a¡¡shining¡¡point¡¡and¡¡then¡¡deep¡¡shadow¡£¡¡When¡¡we¡¡see¡¡this¡¡we¡¡say¡¡it¡¡sparkles¡¡because¡¡we¡¡unite¡¡it¡¡with¡¡a¡¡number¡¡of¡¡similar¡¡observations¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡therefore¡¡conceivable¡¡that¡¡at¡¡a¡¡great¡¡distance£»¡¡under¡¡conditions¡¡of¡¡sharp¡¡or¡¡accidental¡¡illuminations£»¡¡etc¡££»¡¡we¡¡are¡¡likely¡¡to¡¡see¡¡things¡¡as¡¡sparkling¡¡which¡¡do¡¡not¡¡do¡¡so¡¡in¡¡the¡¡least¡£¡¡With¡¡the¡¡concept¡¡¡®¡®sparkling£»''¡¡moreover£»¡¡we¡¡tend¡¡to¡¡unite£»¡¡¡¡at¡¡least¡¡under¡¡certain¡¡circumstances£»¡¡definite¡¡images£»¡¡and¡¡hence¡¡¡®¡®glancing¡¡weapons''¡¡are¡¡often¡¡seen¡¡in¡¡places¡¡where¡¡there¡¡were¡¡only¡¡quite¡¡harmless¡¡dull¡¡objects¡£¡¡So¡¡also¡¡coins¡¡are¡¡seen¡¡to¡¡sparkle¡¡where¡¡really¡¡there¡¡are¡¡none¡£



Section¡¡39¡£¡¡£¨3£©¡¡_The¡¡Blind¡¡Spot_¡£

Everybody¡¡knows¡¡what¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot¡¡is£»¡¡and¡¡every¡¡psychology¡¡and¡¡physiology¡¡text¡­book¡¡talks¡¡about¡¡it¡£¡¡But¡¡as¡¡a¡¡rule¡¡it¡¡is¡¡identified¡¡only¡¡with¡¡the¡¡little¡¡point¡¡and¡¡the¡¡tiny¡¡cross¡¡pictured¡¡in¡¡the¡¡textbooks£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡supposed¡¡that¡¡it¡¡does¡¡not¡¡much¡¡matter¡¡if¡¡the¡¡little¡¡cross£»¡¡under¡¡certain¡¡circumstances£»¡¡can¡¡not¡¡be¡¡seen¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡must¡¡not¡¡be¡¡forgotten¡¡that¡¡the¡¡size¡¡of¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot¡¡increases¡¡with¡¡the¡¡distance¡¡so¡¡that¡¡at¡¡a¡¡fairly¡¡great¡¡distance£»¡¡possibly¡¡half¡¡the¡¡length¡¡of¡¡a¡¡room£»¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot¡¡becomes¡¡so¡¡great¡¡that¡¡a¡¡man's¡¡head¡¡may¡¡disappear¡¡from¡¡the¡¡field¡¡of¡¡vision¡£¡¡According¡¡to¡¡Helmholtz£º¡¡¡®¡®The¡¡effect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot¡¡is¡¡very¡¡significant¡£¡¡If¡¡we¡¡make¡¡a¡¡little¡¡cross¡¡on¡¡a¡¡piece¡¡of¡¡paper¡¡and¡¡then¡¡a¡¡spot¡¡the¡¡size¡¡of¡¡a¡¡pea¡¡two¡¡inches¡¡to¡¡the¡¡right£»¡¡and¡¡if¡¡we¡¡look¡¡at¡¡the¡¡cross¡¡with¡¡the¡¡left¡¡eye¡¡closed£»¡¡the¡¡spot¡¡disappears¡£¡¡The¡¡size¡¡of¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot¡¡is¡¡large¡¡enough¡¡to¡¡cover¡¡in¡¡the¡¡heavens¡¡a¡¡plate¡¡which¡¡has¡¡twelve¡¡times¡¡the¡¡diameter¡¡of¡¡the¡¡moon¡£¡¡It¡¡may¡¡cover¡¡a¡¡human¡¡face¡¡at¡¡a¡¡distance¡¡of¡¡6'£»¡¡but¡¡we¡¡do¡¡not¡¡observe¡¡this¡¡because¡¡we¡¡generally¡¡fill¡¡out¡¡the¡¡void¡£¡¡If¡¡we¡¡see¡¡a¡¡line¡¡in¡¡the¡¡place¡¡in¡¡question£»¡¡we¡¡see¡¡it¡¡unbroken£»¡¡because¡¡we¡¡know¡¡it¡¡to¡¡be¡¡so£»¡¡and¡¡therefore¡¡supply¡¡the¡¡missing¡¡part¡£''

A¡¡number¡¡of¡¡experiments¡¡have¡¡been¡¡made¡¡with¡¡more¡¡or¡¡less¡¡success¡¡to¡¡explain¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡enough¡¡for¡¡us¡¡to¡¡agree¡¡that¡¡we¡¡see¡¡habitually¡¡with¡¡both¡¡eyes¡¡and¡¡that¡¡the¡¡¡®¡®spot¡¡as¡¡big¡¡as¡¡a¡¡pea''¡¡disappears¡¡only¡¡when¡¡we¡¡look¡¡at¡¡the¡¡cross¡£¡¡But¡¡when¡¡we¡¡fix¡¡our¡¡eyes¡¡on¡¡anything¡¡we¡¡pay¡¡attention¡¡to¡¡that¡¡only¡¡and¡¡to¡¡nothing¡¡else¡£¡¡And¡¡it¡¡is¡¡indifferent¡¡to¡¡us¡¡if¡¡an¡¡uninteresting¡¡object¡¡disappears£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡we¡¡begin¡¡to¡¡care¡¡about¡¡the¡¡¡®¡®spot¡¡as¡¡large¡¡as¡¡a¡¡pea£»''¡¡it¡¡is¡¡immediately¡¡to¡¡hand¡¡and¡¡needs¡¡no¡¡imaginative¡¡completion¡£¡¡If¡¡it¡¡be¡¡objected¡¡that¡¡fixing¡¡with¡¡the¡¡eyes¡¡and¡¡being¡¡interested¡¡are¡¡not¡¡identical£»¡¡we¡¡reply¡¡that¡¡a¡¡distinction¡¡is¡¡made¡¡only¡¡in¡¡experiment¡£¡¡You¡¡fix¡¡one¡¡point¡¡and¡¡are¡¡interested¡¡in¡¡the¡¡other¡¡because¡¡you¡¡expect¡¡it¡¡to¡¡disappear¡£¡¡And¡¡this¡¡experiment£»¡¡as¡¡anybody¡¡will¡¡immediately¡¡recognize£»¡¡has¡¡its¡¡peculiar¡¡difficulty£»¡¡because¡¡it¡¡requires¡¡much¡¡concentration¡¡_*not_¡¡to¡¡look¡¡at¡¡the¡¡point¡¡which¡¡interests¡¡us¡£¡¡This¡¡never¡¡happens¡¡in¡¡the¡¡daily¡¡life£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡will¡¡not¡¡be¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡fix¡¡a¡¡point¡¡which¡¡is¡¡not¡¡interesting¡£

At¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡there¡¡are¡¡conceivable¡¡cases¡¡in¡¡which¡¡objects¡¡¡¡seen¡¡askance¡¡may¡¡be¡¡of¡¡importance£»¡¡and¡¡where¡¡the¡¡visual¡¡fixation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡single¡¡point¡¡will¡¡not¡¡reveal¡¡every¡¡reflection¡¡that¡¡fell¡¡on¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot¡£¡¡I¡¡have¡¡not¡¡met¡¡with¡¡a¡¡practical¡¡case¡¡in¡¡which¡¡some¡¡fact¡¡or¡¡testimony¡¡could¡¡be¡¡explained¡¡only¡¡by¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot£»¡¡but¡¡such¡¡cases¡¡are¡¡conceivable¡£


Section¡¡40¡£¡¡£¨c£©¡¡The¡¡Sense¡¡of¡¡Hearing¡£

We¡¡have¡¡two¡¡problems¡¡with¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡soundwhether¡¡the¡¡witnesses¡¡have¡¡heard¡¡correctly£»¡¡and¡¡whether¡¡we¡¡hear¡¡them¡¡correctly¡£¡¡Between¡¡both¡¡witnesses¡¡and¡¡ourselves¡¡there¡¡are¡¡again¡¡other¡¡factors¡£¡¡Correct¡¡comprehension£»¡¡faithful¡¡memory£»¡¡the¡¡activity¡¡of¡¡the¡¡imagination£»¡¡the¡¡variety¡¡of¡¡influences£»¡¡the¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡personal¡¡integrity£»¡¡but¡¡most¡¡important¡¡is¡¡the¡¡consideration£»¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡witness¡¡has¡¡heard¡¡correctly¡£¡¡As¡¡a¡¡general¡¡thing¡¡we¡¡must¡¡deny¡¡in¡¡most¡¡cases¡¡completely¡¡accurate¡¡reproduction¡¡of¡¡what¡¡witnesses¡¡have¡¡heard¡£¡¡In¡¡this¡¡connection¡¡dealing¡¡with¡¡questions¡¡of¡¡honor¡¡is¡¡instructive¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡question¡¡is¡¡the¡¡recall¡¡of¡¡slander¡¡the¡¡terms¡¡of¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡as¡¡various¡¡as¡¡the¡¡number¡¡of¡¡witnesses¡£¡¡We¡¡discover¡¡that¡¡the¡¡sense£»¡¡the¡¡tendency¡¡of¡¡slander¡¡is¡¡not¡¡easily¡¡mistaken¡£¡¡At¡¡least¡¡if¡¡it¡¡is£»¡¡I¡¡have¡¡not¡¡observed¡¡it¡£¡¡The¡¡witness£»¡¡e¡£¡¡g¡££»¡¡will¡¡confuse¡¡the¡¡words¡¡¡®¡®scamp£»''¡¡¡®¡®cheat£»''¡¡¡®¡®swindler£»''¡¡etc¡££»¡¡and¡¡again¡¡the¡¡words£º¡¡¡®¡®ox£»''¡¡¡®¡®donkey£»''¡¡¡®¡®numbskull£»''¡¡etc¡£¡¡But¡¡he¡¡will¡¡not¡¡say¡¡that¡¡he¡¡has¡¡heard¡¡¡®¡®scamp''¡¡where¡¡what¡¡was¡¡said¡¡was¡¡¡®¡®donkey¡£''¡¡He¡¡simply¡¡has¡¡observed¡¡that¡¡A¡¡has¡¡insulted¡¡B¡¡with¡¡an¡¡epithet¡¡of¡¡moral¡¡turpitude¡¡or¡¡of¡¡stupidity¡¡and¡¡under¡¡examination¡¡he¡¡inserts¡¡an¡¡appropriate¡¡term¡£¡¡Often¡¡people¡¡hear¡¡only¡¡according¡¡to¡¡meanings¡¡and¡¡hence¡¡the¡¡difficulty¡¡of¡¡getting¡¡them¡¡to¡¡reproduce¡¡verbally¡¡and¡¡directly¡¡something¡¡said¡¡by¡¡a¡¡third¡¡person¡£¡¡They¡¡always¡¡engage¡¡upon¡¡indirect¡¡narration¡¡because¡¡they¡¡have¡¡heard¡¡only¡¡the¡¡meaning£»¡¡not¡¡the¡¡words¡£¡¡Memory¡¡has¡¡nothing¡¡to¡¡do¡¡with¡¡this¡¡matter£»¡¡for¡¡when¡¡in¡¡examination£»¡¡a¡¡witness¡¡is¡¡requested¡¡to¡¡reproduce¡¡directly¡¡what¡¡he¡¡has¡¡just¡¡heard£»¡¡he¡¡will¡¡reproduce¡¡no¡¡more¡¡than¡¡the¡¡sense£»¡¡not¡¡the¡¡words¡£¡¡Not¡¡to¡¡do¡¡so¡¡requires¡¡an¡¡unusual¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡intelligence¡¡and¡¡training¡£

Now¡¡if¡¡the¡¡witnesses¡¡only¡¡reproduced¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡meaning¡¡of¡¡what¡¡they¡¡heard£»¡¡no¡¡harm¡¡would¡¡be¡¡done£»¡¡but¡¡they¡¡tell¡¡us¡¡only¡¡what¡¡they¡¡_*suppose_¡¡to¡¡be¡¡the¡¡meaning£»¡¡and¡¡hence¡¡we¡¡get¡¡a¡¡good¡¡many¡¡mistakes¡£¡¡It¡¡does¡¡seem¡¡as¡¡if¡¡uneducated¡¡and¡¡half¡­educated¡¡people¡¡are¡¡able¡¡to¡¡shut¡¡their¡¡ears¡¡to¡¡all¡¡things¡¡they¡¡do¡¡not¡¡understand¡£¡¡Even¡¡purely¡¡sensory¡¡perception¡¡is¡¡organized¡¡according¡¡to¡¡intelligent¡¡capacity¡£

If¡¡this¡¡is¡¡kept¡¡in¡¡mind¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡possible¡¡correctly¡¡to¡¡interpret¡¡testimonies¡¡in¡¡those¡¡difficult¡¡instances¡¡in¡¡which¡¡one¡¡man¡¡narrates¡¡¡¡what¡¡he¡¡has¡¡heard¡¡from¡¡another¡¡concerning¡¡his¡¡own¡¡statement£»¡¡and¡¡where¡¡it¡¡might¡¡be¡¡quite¡¡impossible¡¡to¡¡judge¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡and¡¡culture¡¡of¡¡this¡¡third¡¡person¡£¡¡There¡¡are¡¡a¡¡few¡¡other¡¡conditions¡¡to¡¡consider¡¡besides¡£

If¡¡we¡¡have¡¡to¡¡discover¡¡a¡¡person's¡¡hearing¡¡power¡¡or¡¡his¡¡hearing¡¡power¡¡under¡¡definite¡¡conditions£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡best¡¡never¡¡to¡¡depend£»¡¡in¡¡even¡¡slightly¡¡important¡¡cases£»¡¡on¡¡vocal¡¡tests¡¡merely¡£¡¡The¡¡examination¡¡must¡¡be¡¡made¡¡by¡¡experts£»¡¡and¡¡if¡¡the¡¡case¡¡is¡¡really¡¡subtle¡¡it¡¡must¡¡be¡¡made¡¡under¡¡the¡¡same¡¡circumstances¡¡of¡¡place¡¡and¡¡condition£»¡¡and¡¡with¡¡the¡¡same¡¡people¡¡as¡¡in¡¡the¡¡original¡¡situation¡£¡¡Otherwise¡¡nothing¡¡certain¡¡can¡¡be¡¡learned¡£

The¡¡determination¡¡of¡¡auditory¡¡power¡¡is£»¡¡however£»¡¡insufficient£»¡¡for¡¡this¡¡power¡¡varies¡¡with¡¡the¡¡degree¡¡any¡¡individual¡¡can¡¡distinguish¡¡a¡¡single¡¡definite¡¡tone¡¡among¡¡many£»¡¡hear¡¡it¡¡alone£»¡¡and¡¡retain¡¡it¡£¡¡And¡¡this¡¡varies¡¡not¡¡only¡¡with¡¡the¡¡individual¡¡but¡¡also¡¡with¡¡the¡¡time£»¡¡the¡¡place£»¡¡the¡¡voice£»¡¡etc¡£¡¡In¡¡my¡¡bed¡­room£»¡¡e¡£¡¡g¡££»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡three¡¡neighboring¡¡rooms¡¡I¡¡have¡¡wall¡­clocks¡¡each¡¡of¡¡which¡¡is¡¡running¡£¡¡The¡¡doors¡¡of¡¡the¡¡room¡¡are¡¡open¡¡right¡¡and¡¡left¡£¡¡At¡¡night¡¡when¡¡everything¡¡is¡¡quiet£»¡¡I¡¡can¡¡sometimes¡¡hear¡¡the¡¡ticking¡¡of¡¡each¡¡one¡¡of¡¡these¡¡clocks£»¡¡immediately¡¡isolate¡¡one¡¡completely¡¡and¡¡listen¡¡to¡¡that¡¡so¡¡that¡¡the

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨0£© ²È£¨0£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ