criminal psychology-第51章

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cking　of　each　one　of　these　clocks；　immediately　isolate　one　completely　and　listen　to　that　so　that　the　ticking　of　the　other　three　completely　disappears。　Then　again　I　may　kindly　command　myself　not　to　hear　this　ticking；　but　to　hear　one　of　the　other　three；　and　I　do　so；　though　I　fail　to　hear　two　clocks　together　at　just　the　same　instant。　On　another　day　under　similar　circumstances　I　completely　fail　in　this　attempt。　Either　I　hear　none　of　the　clocks　in　particular；　or　only　for　a　short　time；　which　results　in　the　ticking's　being　again　lost　in　the　general　noise；　or　I　do　hear　the　ticking　of　one　clock；　but　never　of　that　which　I　have　chosen　to　hear。

This　incident　is　variously　explicable　and　the　experiment　may　be　repeated　with　various　persons。　It　indicates　that　auditory　capacity　is　exceedingly　differentiated　and　that　there　is　no　justification　for　aprioristic　doubt　of　especial　powers。　It　is；　however；　admittedly　difficult　to　say　how　experiments　can　be　made　under　control。

There　are　still　a　few　more　marvels。　It　is　repeatedly　asserted；　e。　g。；　by　Tyndall；　that　a　comparatively　large　number　of　people　do　not　hear　high　tones　like　the　chirping　of　crickets；　although　the　normal　hearing　of　such　people　is　acute。　Others　again　easily　sense　deep　tones　but　distinguish　them　with　difficulty　because　they　retain　only　a　roll　or　roar；　but　do　not　hear　the　individual　tones。＇1＇　And　generally；　　almost　all　people　have　difficulty　in　making　a　correct　valuation　of　the　direction　of　sound。　Wundt　says　that　we　locate　powerful　sounds　in　front　of　us　and　are　generally　better　able　to　judge　right　and　left　than　before　and　behind。＇1b＇　These　data；　which　are　for　us　quite　important；　have　been　subjected　to　many　tests。　Wundt's　statement　has　been　confirmed　by　various　experiments　which　have　shown　that　sound　to　the　right　and　the　left　are　best　distinguished；　and　sounds　in　front　and　below；　in　front　to　the　right　and　to　the　left；　and　below；　to　the　right　and　to　the　left；　are　least　easily　distinguished。　Among　the　experimenters　were　Preyer；　Arnheim；　Kries；　Mnsterberg。


＇1＇　People　of　extreme　old　age　do　not　seem　to　be　able　to　hear　shrill　tones。　A　friend　of　mine　reports　this　to　be　the　case　with　the　composer；　Robert　Franz。

＇1b＇　W。　Wundt：　Grundzge。


All　these　experiments　indicate　certain　constant　tendencies　to　definite　mistakes。　Sounds　in　front　are　often　mistaken　for　sounds　behind　and　felt　to　be　higher　than　their　natural　head…level。　Again；　it　is　generally　asserted　that　binaural　hearing　is　of　great　importance　for　the　recognition　of　the　direction　of　sound。　With　one　ear　this　recognition　is　much　more　difficult。　This　may　be　verified　by　the　fact　that　we　turn　our　heads　here　and　there　as　though　to　compare　directions　whenever　we　want　to　make　sure　of　the　direction　of　sound。　In　this　regard；　too；　a　number　of　effective　experiments　have　been　made。

When　it　is　necessary　to　determine　whether　the　witness　deposes　correctly　concerning　the　direction　of　sound；　it　is　best　to　get　the　official　physician　to　find　out　whether　he　hears　with　both　ears；　and　whether　he　hears　equally　well　with　both。　It　is　observed　that　persons　who　hear　excellently　with　both　ears　are　unfortunate　in　judging　the　direction　of　sound。　Others　again　are　very　skilful　in　this　matter；　and　may　possibly　get　their　skill　from　practice；　sense　of　locality；　etc。　But　in　any　case；　certainty　can　be　obtained　only　by　experimentation。

With　regard　to　the　conduction　of　soundit　is　to　be　noted　that　sound　is　carried　astonishingly　far　by　means　of　compact　bodies。　The　distance　at　which　the　trotting　of　horses；　the　thunder　of　cannons；　etc。；　may　be　heard　by　laying　the　ear　close　to　the　ground　is　a　commonplace　in　fiction。　Therefore；　if　a　witness　testifies　to　have　heard　something　at　a　great　distance　in　this　way；　or　by　having　laid　his　ear　to　the　wall；　it　is　well　not　to　set　the　evidence　aside。　Although　it　will　be　difficult　in　such　cases　to　make　determinative　experiments；　it　is　useful　to　do　so　because　the　limits　of　his　capacity　are　then　approximated。

Under　certain　circumstances　it　may　be　of　importance　to　know　what　can　be　heard　when　the　head；　or　at　least　the　ear；　is　under　water。　The　experiment　may　be　made　in　the　bath…room；　by　setting　the　back　of　the　head　under　water　so　that　the　ears　are　completely　covered　　but　the　mouth　and　the　eyes　are　free。　The　mouth　must　be　kept　closed　so　that　there　shall　be　no　intrusion　of　sound　through　the　Eustachian　tube。　In　this　condition　practically　no　sound　can　be　heard　which　must　_*first　pass　through　the　air_。　If；　therefore；　anybody　even　immediately　next　to　you；　speaks　ever　so　loud；　you　can　hear　only　a　minimum　of　what　he　says。　On　the　other　hand；　noises　that　are　conducted　by　compact　bodies；　i。　e。　the　walls；　the　bath；　and　the　water；　can　be　heard　with　astonishing　distinctness；　especially　if　the　bath　is　not　detachable　but　is　built　into　the　wall。　Then　if　some　remote　part　of　the　building；　e。　g。　some　wall；　is　knocked；　the　noise　is　heard　perfectly　well；　although　somebody　standing　near　the　bath　hears　nothing　whatever。　This　may　be　of　importance　in　cases　of　accident；　in　certain　attempts　at　drowning　people；　and　in　accidental　eaves…dropping。

There　are　several　things　to　note　with　regard　to　deaf　persons；　or　such　as　have　difficulty　with　their　hearing。　According　to　Fechner；　deafness　begins　with　the　inability　to　hear　high　tones　and　ends　with　the　inability　to　hear　deep　ones；　so　that　it　often　happens　that　complainants　are　not　believed　because　they　still　hear　deep　tones。　Again；　there　are　mistakes　which　rise　from　the　fact　that　the　deaf　often　learn　a　great　deal　from　the　movements　of　the　lips；　and　the　reading　of　these　movements　has　become　the　basis　of　the　so…called　‘‘audition''　of　deaf　mutes。　There　are　stories　of　deaf　mutes　who　have　perceived　more　in　this　way；　and　by　means　of　their　necessary　and　well…practised　synthesis　of　impressions；　than　persons　with　good　hearing　power。

The　differences　that　age　makes　in　hearing　are　of　importance。　Bezold　has　examined　a　large　number　of　human　ears　of　different　ages　and　indicates　that　after　the　fiftieth　year　there　is　not　only　a　successive　decrease　in　the　number　of　the　approximately　normal…hearing；　but　there　is　a　successively　growing　increase　in　the　degree　of　auditory　limitation　which　the　ear　experiences　with　increasing　age。　The　results　are　more　surprising　than　is　supposed。

Not　one　of　100　people　over　fifty　years　of　age　could　understand　conversational　speech　at　a　distance　of　sixteen　meters；　10。5％　understood　it　at　a　distance　of　eight　to　sixteen　meters。　Of　school　children　46。5％　（1918　of　them）　from　seven　to　eighteen　understood　it　at　a　distance　of　20　meters　plus；　and　32。7％　at　a　distance　of　from　16　to　8　meters。　The　percentage　then　is　10。5　for　people　over　fifty　as　against　79。2　of　people　over　seven　and　under　18。　Old　women　can　hear　better　than　old　men。　At　a　distance　of　4　to　16　meters　the　proportion　of　women　to　men　who　could　hear　was　34　to　17。　The　converse　is　　true　of　children；　for　at　a　distance　of　20　meters　and　more　the　percentage　of　boys　was　49。9　and　girls　43。2。　The　reason　for　this　inversion　of　the　relation　lies　in　the　harmful　influences　of　manual　labor　and　other　noisy　occupations　of　men。　These　comparisons　may　be　of　importance　when　the　question　is　raised　as　to　how　much　more　a　witness　may　have　heard　than　one　of　a　different　age。


Section　41。　（d）　The　Sense　of　Taste。

The　sense　of　taste　is　rarely　of　legal　importance；　but　when　it　does　come　into　importance　it　is　regularly　very　significant　because　it　involves；　in　the　main；　problems　of　poisoning。　The　explanation　of　such　cases　is　rarely　easy　and　certainfirst　of　all；　because　we　can　not；　without　difficulty；　get　into　a　position　of　testing　the　delicacy　and　acuteness　of　any　individual　sense　of　taste；　where　such　testing　is　quite　simple　with　regard　to　seeing　and　hearing。　At　the　same　time；　it　is　necessary　when　tests　are　made；　to　depend　upon　general；　and　rarely　constant　impressions；　since　very　few　people　mean　the　same　thing　by；　stinging；　prickly；　metallic；　and　burning　tastes；　even　though　the　ordinary　terms　sweet；　sour；　bitter；　and　salty；　may　be　accepted　as　approximately　constant。　The　least　that　can　be　done　when　a　taste　is　defined　as　good；　bad；　excellent；　or　disgusting；　is　to　test　it　in　every　possible　direction　with　regard　to　the　age；　habits；　health；　and　intelligence　of　the　taster；　for　all　of　these　exercise　great　influence　on　his　values。　Similarly　necessary　are　valuations　like　flat；　sweetish；　contractile；　limey；　pappy；　sandy；　which　are　all　dictated　by　almost　momentary　variations　in　well…being。

But　if　any　denotation　is　to　be　depended　upon；　and　in　the　end　some　one　has　to　be；　it　is　necessary　to　determine　whether　the　perception　has　been　made　with　the　end　or　the　root　of　the　tongue。＇1＇　Longet；　following　the　experiments　of　certain　others；　has　brought　together　definite　results　in　the　following　table：

　　　　　TASTE　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　TONGUE…TIP　　　　　TONGUE　ROOT　　　　　　Glauber's　salts　。　。　salty　　　　　　　　　　bitter　　　　　　Iodkalium　。　。　。　。　　　。　　　　‘‘　　　　　　　　‘‘　　　　　　Alum。　。　。　。　。　。　。　。　sour　　　　　　sweet　　　　　　Glycerine　。　。　。　。　。　none　　　　　　‘‘　　　　　　Rock　candy。　。　。　。　。　‘‘　　　　　　　　‘‘　　　　　　Chlorate　of　strychnine　　　‘‘　　　　　　　　‘‘　　　　　　Natrium　carbonate　。　‘‘　　　　　　　　alkaloid

＇1＇　A。　Strindberg。　Zur　Physiologie　des　Geschmacks。　wiener　Rundschau；　1900。　p。　338　ff。



In　such　cases　too；　particularly　as　diseased　conditions　and　personal　idiosyncrasies　exercise　considerable　influences；　it　will　be　important　to　call　in　the　physician。　Dehn　is　led　by　his　experiments　to　the　conclusion　that　woman's　sense　of　taste　is　finer　than　man's；　and　again　that　that　of　the　educated　man　finer　than　that　of　the　uneducated。　In　women　education　makes　no　difference　in　this　regard。


Section　42。　（e）　The　Sense　of　Smell。

The　sense　of　smell　would　be　of　great　importance　for　legal　consideration　if　it　could　get　the　study　it　deserves。　It　may　be　said　that　many　men　have　more　acute　olfactory　powers　than　they　know；　and　that　they　may　learn　more　by　means　of　them　than　by　means　of　the　other　senses。　The　sense　of　smell　has　little　especial　practical　importance。　It　only　serves　to　supply　a　great　many　people　with　occasional　disagreeable　impressions；　and　what　men　fail　to　find　especially　necessary　they　do　not　easily　make　use　of。　The　utility　of　smell　would　be　great　because　it　is　accurate；　and　hence　powerful　in　its　associative　quality。　But　it　is　rarely　attended　to；　even　when　the　associations　are　awakened　they　are　not　ascribed　to　the　sense　of　smell　but　are　said　to　be　accidental。　I　offer　one　example　only；　of　this　common　fact。　When　I　was　a　child　of　less　than　eight　years；　I　once　visited　with　my　parents　a　priest　who　was　a　school…mate　of　my　father's。　The　day　spent　in　the　parsonage　contained　nothing　remarkable；　so　that　all　these　years　I　have　not　even　thought　of　it。　A　short　time　ago　all　the　details　I　encountered　on　that　day　occurred　to　me　very　vividly；　and　inasmuch　as　this　sudden　memory　seemed　baseless；　I　studied　carefully　the　cause　of　its　occurrence；　without　success。　A　short　time　later　I　had　the　same　experience　and　at　the　same　place。　This　was　a　clew；　and　I　then　recalled　that　I　had　undertaken　a　voyage　of　discovery　with　the　small　niece　of　the　parson　and　had　been　led　into　a　fruit　cellar。　There　I　found　great　heaps　of　apples　laid　on　straw；　and　on　the　wall　a　considerable　number　of　the　hunting　boots　of　the　parson。　The　mixed　odors　of　apple；　straw　and　boots　constituted　a　unique　and　l