criminal psychology-第68章

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But　we　must　not　reconstruct　his　maxims　theoretically。　We　must　study　everything　that　surrounds；　alters；　and　determines　him；　for　it　is　at　this　point　that　a　man's　environments　and　relationships　most　influence　him。　As　Grohmann　said；　half　a　century　ago；　‘‘If　you　could　find　an　elixir；　which　could　cause　the　vital　organs　to　work　otherwise；　if　you　could　alter　the　somatic　functions　of　the　body；　you　would　be　the　master　of　the　will。''　Therefore　it　is　never　superfluous　to　study　the　individual's　environmental　conditions；　surroundings；　all　his　outer　influences。　That　the　effort　required　in　such　a　study　is　great；　is　of　course　obvious；　but　the　criminal　lawyer　must　make　it　if　he　is　to　perform　his　task　properly。＇1＇



＇1＇　H。　Mnsterberg：　Die　Willeshandlung　and　various　chapters　on　will　in　the　psychologies　of　James；　Titchener；　etc。



Topic　8。　EMOTION。

Section　58。

Little　as　emotion；　as　generally　understood；　may　have　to　do　with　the　criminalist；　it　is；　in　its　intention；　most　important　for　him。　The　motive　of　a　series　of　phenomena　and　events；　both　in　prisoners　and　witnesses；　is　emotion。　In　what　follows；　therefore；　we　shall　attempt　to　show　that　feeling；　in　so　far　as　we　need　to　consider　it；　need　not　be　taken　as　an　especial　function。　This　is　only　so　far　significant　as　to　　make　our　work　easier　by　limiting　it　to　fewer　subjects。　If　we　can　reduce　some　one　psychic　function　to　another　category　we　can　explain　many　a　thing　even　when　we　know　only　the　latter。　In　any　event；　the　study　of　a　single　category　is　simpler　than　that　of　many。＇1＇


＇1＇　A。　Lehman：　Die　Hauptgesetze　des　menschlichen　Gefhlsleben。　Leipzig　1892。


Abstractly；　the　word　emotion　is　the　property　or　capacity　of　the　mind　to　be　influenced　pleasantly　or　unpleasantly　by　sensations；　perceptions；　and　ideas。　Concretely；　it　means　the　conditions　of　desire　or　disgust　which　are　developed　by　the　complex　of　conditions　thereby　aroused。　We　have　first　to　distinguish　between　the　so…called　animal　and　the　higher　emotions。　We　will　assume　that　this　distinction　is　incorrect；　inasmuch　as　between　these　classes　there　is　a　series　of　feelings　which　may　be　counted　as　well　with　one　as　with　the　other；　so　that　the　transition　is　incidental　and　no　strict　differentiation　is　possible。　We　will；　however；　retain　the　distinction；　as　it　is　easier　by　means　of　it　to　pass　from　the　simpler　to　the　more　difficult　emotions。　The　indubitably　animal　passions　we　shall　take　to　be　hunger；　thirst；　cold；　etc。　These　are　first　of　all　purely　physiological　stimuli　which　act　on　our　body。　But　it　is　impossible　to　imagine　one　of　them；　without；　at　the　same　time；　inevitably　bringing　in　the　idea　of　the　defense　against　this　physiological　stimulus。　It　is　impossible　to　think　of　the　feeling　of　hunger　without　sensing　also　the　strain　to　find　relief　from　this　feeling；　for　without　this　sensation　hunger　would　not　appear　as　such。　If　I　am　hungry　I　go　for　food；　if　I　am　cold　I　seek　for　warmth；　if　I　feel　pain　I　try　to　wipe　it　out。　How　to　satisfy　these　desiderative　actions　is　a　problem　for　the　understanding；　whence　it　follows　that　successful　satisfaction；　intelligent　or　unintelligent；　may　vary　in　every　possible　degree。　We　see　that　the　least　intelligentreal　cretinssometimes　are　unable　to　satisfy　their　hunger；　for　when　food　is　given　the　worst　of　them；　they　stuff　it；　in　spite　of　acute　sensations　of　hunger；　into　their　ears　and　noses；　but　not　into　their　mouths。　We　must　therefore　say　that　there　is　always　a　demand　for　a　minimum　quantity　of　intelligence　in　order　to　know　that　the　feeling　of　hunger　may　be　vanquished　by　putting　food　into　the　mouth。

One　step　further：　In　the　description　of　the　conduct　of　anthropoid　apes　which　are　kept　in　menageries；　etc。；　especial　intelligence　is　assigned　to　those　who　know　how　to　draw　a　blanket　over　themselves　as　protection　against　cold。　The　same　action　is　held　to　be　a　sign　of　intelligence　in　very　young　children。

Still　more　thoroughly　graded　is　the　attitude　toward　pain；　inasmuch　　as　barely　a　trace　of　intelligence　is　required；　in　order　to　know　that　it　is　necessary　to　wipe　away　a　hot　liquid　drop　that　has　fallen　on　the　body。　Every　physiological　text…book　mentions　the　fact　that　a　decapitated　frog　makes　such　wiping　movements　when　it　is　wet　with　acid。　From　this　unconscious　activity　of　the　understanding　to　the　technically　highest…developed　treatment　of　a　burn；　a　whole　series　of　progressively　higher　expressions　of　intelligence　may　be　interpolated；　a　series　so　great　as　to　defy　counting。

Now　take　another；　still　animal；　but　more　highly…developed　feeling；　for　example；　the　feeling　of　comfort。　We　lay　a　cat　on　a　soft　bolster　she　stretches　herself；　spreads　and　thins　herself　out；　in　order　to　bring　as　many　nerve　termini　as　possible　into　contact　with　the　pleasant　stimuli　of　the　bolster。　This　behavior　of　the　cat　may　be　construed　as　instinctive；　also　as　the　aboriginal　source　of　the　sense　of　comfort　and　as　leading　to　luxury　in　comfort；　the　stage　of　comfort　which　Roscher　calls　highest。　（I。　Luxury　in　eating　and　drinking。　II。　Luxury　in　dress。　III。　Luxury　in　comfort。）

Therefore　we　may　say　that　the　reaction　of　the　understanding　to　the　physiological　stimulus　aims　to　set　it　aside　when　it　is　unpleasant；　and　to　increase　and　exhaust　it　when　it　is　pleasant；　and　that　in　a　certain　sense　both　coincide　（the　ousting　of　unpleasant　darkness　is　equivalent　to　the　introduction　of　pleasant　light）。　We　may　therefore　say　generally；　that　feeling　is　a　physiological　stimulus　indivisibly　connected　with　the　understanding's　sensitive　attitude　thereto。　Of　course　there　is　a　far　cry　from　instinctive　exclusion　and　inclusion　to　the　most　refined　defensive　preparation　or　interpretation；　but　the　differences　which　lie　next　to　each；　on　either　side；　are　only　differences　in　degree。

Now　let　us　think　of　some　so…called　higher　feeling　and　consider　a　special　case　of　it。　I　meet　for　the　first　time　a　man　who　is　unpleasantly　marked；　e。　g。；　with　badly　colored　hair。　This　stimulates　my　eyes　disagreeably；　and　I　seek　either　by　looking　away　or　by　wishing　the　man　away　to　protect　myself　from　this　physiologically…inimical　influence；　which　already　eliminates　all　feeling　of　friendship　for　this　harmless　individual。　Now　I　see　that　the　man　is　torturing　an　animal；I　do　not　like　to　see　this；　it　affects　me　painfully；　hence　I　wish　him　out　of　the　way　still　more　energetically。　If　he　goes　on　so；　adding　one　disagreeable　characteristic　to　another；　I　might　break　his　bones　to　stop　him；　bind　him　in　chains　to　hinder　him；　I　even　might　kill　him；　to　save　myself　the　unpleasant　excitation　he　causes　me。　I　strain　my　intelligence　to　think　of　some　means　of　opposing　him；　and　clearly；　in　　this　case；　also；　physiological　stimulus　and　activity　of　the　understanding　are　invincibly　united。

The　emotion　of　anger　is　rather　more　difficult　to　explain。　But　it　is　not　like　suddenly…exploding　hatred　for　it　is　acute；　while　hatred　is　chronic。　I　might　be　angry　with　my　beloved　child。　But　though　at　the　moment　of　anger；　the　expression　is　identical　with　that　of　hatred；　it　is　also　transitive。　In　the　extremest　cases　the　negating　action　aims　to　destroy　the　stimulus。　This　is　the　most　radical　means　of　avoiding　physiological　excitation；　and　hence　I　tear　in　pieces　a　disagreeable　letter；　or　stamp　to　powder　the　object　on　which　I　have　hurt　myself。　Where　persons　are　involved；　I　proceed　either　directly　or　symbolically　when　I　can　not；　or　may　not；　get　my　hands　on　the　responsible　one。

The　case　is　the　same　with　feeling　of　attraction。　I　own　a　dog；　he　has　beautiful　lines　which　are　pleasant　to　my　eye；　he　has　a　bell…　like　bark　that　stimulates　my　ear　pleasantly；　he　has　a　soft　coat　which　is　pleasant　to　my　stroking　hand；　I　know　that　in　case　of　need　the　dog　will　protect　me　（and　that　is　a　calming　consideration）；　I　know　that　he　may　be　otherwise　of　use　to　mein　short　my　understanding　tells　me　all　kinds　of　pleasant　things　about　the　beast。　Hence　I　like　to　have　him　near　me；　i。　e。；　I　like　him。　The　same　explanation　may　be　applied　to　all　emotions　of　inclination　or　repulsion。　Everywhere　we　find　the　emotion　as　physiological　stimulus　in　indivisible　union　with　a　number　of　partly　known；　partly　unknown　functions　of　the　understanding。　The　unknown　play　an　important　rle。　They　are　serial　understandings；　i。　e。；　inherited　from　remote　ancestors；　and　are　characterized　by　the　fact　that　they　lead　us　to　do　the　things　we　do　when　we　recognize　intelligently　any　event　and　its　requirements。

When　one　gets　thirsty；　he　drinks。　Cattle　do　the　same。　And　they　drink　even　when　nobody　has　told　them　to；　because　this　is　an　inherited　action　of　countless　years。　If　a　man　is；　however；　to　proceed　intelligently　about　his　drinking；　he　will　say；　‘‘By　drying；　or　other　forms　of　segregation；　the　water　will　be　drawn　from　the　cells　of　my　body；　they　will　become　arid；　and　will　no　longer　be　sufficiently　elastic　to　do　their　work。　If；　now；　by　way　of　my　stomach；　through　endosmosis　and　exosmosis；　I　get　them　more　water；　the　proper　conditions　will　return。''　The　consequences　of　this　form　of　consideration　will　not　be　different　from　the　instinctive　action　of　the　most　elementary　of　animalsthe　wise　man　and　the　animal　drink。　So　the　whole　content　of　every　emotion　is　physiological　stimulation　and　function　of　the　understanding。

And　what　good　is　all　this　to　the　criminal　lawyer？　Nobody　　doubts　that　both　prisoners　and　witnesses　are　subject　to　the　powerful　influence　of　emotional　expression。　Nobody　doubts　that　the　determination；　interpretation；　and　judgment　of　these　expressions　are　as　difficult　as　they　are　important　to　the　judge。　And　when　we　consider　these　emotions　as　especial　conditions　of　the　mind　it　is　indubitable　that　they　are　able　to　cause　still　greater　difficulty　because　of　their　elusiveness；　their　very　various　intensity；　and　their　confused　effect。　Once；　however；　we　think　of　them　as　functions　of　the　understanding；　we　have；　in　its　activities；　something　better　known；　something　rather　more　disciplined；　which　offers　very　many　fewer　difficulties　in　the　judgment　concerning　the　fixed　form　in　which　it　acts。　Hence；　every　judgment　of　an　emotional　state　must　be　preceded　by　a　reconstruction　in　terms　of　the　implied　functions　of　the　understanding。　Once　this　is　done；　further　treatment　is　no　longer　difficult。



Topic　9。　THE　FORMS　OF　GIVING　TESTIMONY。

Section　59。

Wherever　we　turn　we　face　the　absolute　importance　of　language　for　our　work。　Whatever　we　hear　or　read　concerning　a　crime　is　expressed　in　words；　and　everything　perceived　with　the　eye；　or　any　other　sense；　must　be　clothed　in　words　before　it　can　be　put　to　use。　That　the　criminalist　must　know　this　first　and　most　important　means　of　understanding；　completely　and　in　all　its　refinements；　is　self…　evident。　But　still　more　is　required　of　him。　He　must　first　of　all　undertake　a　careful　investigation　of　the　essence　of　language　itself。　A　glance　over　literature　shows　how　the　earliest　scholars　have　aimed　to　study　language　with　regard　to　its　origins　and　character。　Yet；　who　needs　this　knowledge？　The　lawyer。　Other　disciplines　can　find　in　it　only　a　scientific　interest；　but　it　is　practically　and　absolutely　valuable　only　for　us　lawyers；　who　must；　by　means　of　language；　take　evidence；　remember　it；　and　variously　interpret　it。　A　failure　in　a　proper　understanding　of　language　may　give　rise　to　false　conceptions　and　the　most　serious　of　mistakes。　Hence；　nobody　is　so　bound　as　the　criminal　lawyer　to　study　the