criminal psychology-第90章

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　of　all；　in　the　dreary　region；then　in　the　cup　of　hot　coffee　that　I　had　drunk　in　the　restaurant；　which　might　possibly　have　been　poisonous；finally；　it　occurred　to　me　that　the　hoof…beats　of　the　horses　were　tuned　to　a　very　saddening　minor　chord。　The　coachman　in　his　hurry　had　forgotten　to　take　bells　with　him；　and　in　order　to　avoid　violating　police　regulations　he　had　borrowed　at　the　inn　another　peal；　and　my　sad　state　dated　from　the　moment　I　heard　it。　I　banished　the　sound　and　immediately　I　found　myself　enjoying　the　pretty　scenery。

I　am　convinced　that　if　I　had　been　called　to　testify　in　my　sad　state；　I　would　have　told　the　story　otherwise　than　normally。　The　influence　of　music　upon　attitude　is　very　well　known。　The　unknown　influence　of　external　conditions　also　makes　a　difference　on　attitude。　‘‘If　you　are　absorbed　in　thought；''　says　Fechner；　‘‘you　notice　neither　sunshine　nor　the　green　of　the　meadows；　etc。；　and　still　you　are　in　a　quite　different　emotional　condition　from　that　which　would　possess　you　in　a　dark　room。''

The　attitude　we　call　indifference　is　of　particular　import。　It　appears；　especially；　when　the　ego；　because　of　powerful　impressions；　is　concerned　with　itself；　pain；　sadness；　important　work；　reflection；　　disease；　etc。　In　this　condition　we　depreciate　or　undervalue　the　significance　of　everything　that　occurs　about　us。　Everything　is　brought　into　relation　to　our　personal；　immediate　condition；　and　is　from　the　point　of　view　of　our　egoism；　more　or　less　indifferent。　It　does　not　matter　whether　this　attitude　of　indifference　occurs　at　the　time　of　perception　or　at　the　time　of　restatement　during　the　examination。　In　either　case；　the　fact　is　robbed　of　its　hardness；　its　significance；　and　its　importance；　what　was　white　or　black；　is　described　as　gray。

There　is　another　and　similar　attitude　which　is　distinguished　by　the　fact　that　we　are　never　quite　aware　of　it　but　are　much　subject　to　it。　According　to　Lipps＇1＇　and　Lotze；＇2＇　there　is　to　be　observed　in　neurotic　attitudes　a　not　rare　and　complete　indifference　to　feeling；　and　in　consciousness　an　essential　lack　of　feeling…tone　in　perception。　Our　existence；　our　own　being；　seems　to　us；　then；　to　be　a　foreign　thing；　having　little　concern　with　usa　story　we　need　not　earnestly　consider。　That　in　such　condition　little　attention　is　paid　to　what　is　going　on　around　us　seems　clear　enough。　The　experiences　are　shadowy　and　superficial；　they　are　indifferent　and　are　represented　as　such　only。　This　condition　is　very　dangerous　in　the　law　court；　because；　where　a　conscientious　witness　will　tell　us　that；　e。　g。；　at　the　time　of　the　observation　or　the　examination　he　was　sick　or　troubled；　and　therefore　was　incorrect；　a　person　utterly　detached　in　the　way　described　does　not　tell　the　judge　of　his　condition；　probably　because　he　does　not　know　anything　about　it。

There　are　certain　closely…related　mental　and　physical　situations　which　lead　to　quite　a　different　view。　Those　who　are　suffering　physically；　those　who　have　deeply　wounded　feelings；　and　those　who　have　been　reduced　by　worry；　are　examined　in　the　same　way　as　normal　people；　yet　they　need　to　be　measured　by　quite　a　different　standard。　Again；　we　are　sometimes　likely　to　suppose　great　passions　that　have　long　since　passed　their　period；　to　be　as　influential　as　they　were　in　their　prime。　We　know　that　love　and　hate　disappear　in　the　distance；　and　that　love　long　dead　and　a　long…deferred　hatred　tend　to　express　themselves　as　a　feeling　of　mildness　and　forgiveness　which　is　pretty　much　the　same　in　spite　of　its　diverse　sources。　If　the　examiner　knows　that　a　great　passion；　whether　of　hate　or　of　love；　exists；　he　thinks　he　is　fooled　when　he　finds　a　full；　calm　and　objective　judgment　instead　of　it。　It　seems　impossible　to　him；　and　he　either　does　not　believe　the　probably　accurate　witness；　or　colors　his　testimony　with　that　knowledge。


＇1＇　T。　Lipps：　Die　Grundtatsachen　des　Seelenlebens。　Bonn　1883

＇2＇　R。　H。　Lotze：　Medizinische　Psychologie。　Leipzig　1882。



Bodily　conditions　are　still　more　remarkable　in　effecting　differences　in　point　of　view。　Here　no　sense…illusion　is　presented　since　no　change　occurs　in　sense…perception；　the　changes　are　such　that　arise　after　the　perception；　during　the　process　of　judgment　and　interpretation。　We　might　like　an　idea　when　lying　down　that　displeases　us　when　we　stand　up。　Examination　shows　that　this　attitude　varies　with　the　difference　in　the　quantity　of　blood　in　the　brain　in　these　two　positions；　and　this　fact　may　explain　a　whole　series　of　phenomena。　First　of　all；　it　is　related　to　plan…making　and　the　execution　of　plans。　Everybody　knows　how；　while　lying　in　bed；　a　great　many　plans　occur　that　seem　good。　The　moment　you　get　up；　new　considerations　arise；　and　the　half…adopted　plan　is　progressively　abandoned。　Now　this　does　not　mean　anything　so　long　as　nothing　was　undertaken　in　the　first　situation　which　might　be　binding　for　the　resolution　then　made。　For　example；　when　two；　lying　in　bed；　have　made　a　definite　plan；　each　is　later　ashamed　before　the　other　to　withdraw　from　it。　So　we　often　hear　from　criminals　that　they　were　sorry　about　certain　plans；　but　since　they　were　once　resolved　upon；　they　were　carried　out。　Numbers　of　such　phenomena；　many　of　them　quite　unbelievable　in　appearance；　may　be　retroduced　to　similar　sources。

A　like　thing　occurs　when　a　witness；　e。　g。；　reflects　about　some　event　while　he　is　in　bed。　When　he　thinks　of　it　again　he　is　convinced；　perhaps；　that　the　matter　really　occurred　in　quite　another　way　than　he　had　newly　supposed　it　to。　Now　he　may　convince　himself　that　the　time　at　which　he　made　the　reflections　was　nearer　the　event；　and　hence；　those　reflections　must　have　been　the　more　correct　ones　in　that　case　he　sticks　to　his　first　story；　although　that　might　have　been　incorrect。　Helmholtz＇1＇　has　pointed　to　something　similar：　‘‘The　colors　of　a　landscape　appear　to　be　much　more　living　and　definite　when　they　are　looked　at　obliquely；　or　when　they　are　looked　at　with　the　head　upside　down；　than　when　they　are　looked　at　with　the　head　in　its　ordinary　position。　With　the　head　upside　down　we　try　correctly　to　judge　objects　and　know　that；　e。　g。；　green　meadows；　at　a　certain　distance；　have　a　rather　altered　coloration。　We　become　used　to　that　fact；　discount　the　change　and　identify　the　green　of　distant　objects　with　the　shade　of　green　belonging　to　near　objects。　Besides；　we　see　the　landscape　from　the　new　position　as　a　flat　image；　and　incidentally　we　see　clouds　in　right　perspective　and　the　landscape　flat；　like　clouds　when　we　see　them　in　the　ordinary　way。''　Of　course；　everybody　knows　this。　And　of　course；　in　a　criminal　case　such　considerations　will


＇1＇　Handbuch　der　physiologischen　Optik。　Leipzig　1865。

　hardly　ever　play　any　rle。　But；　on　the　other　hand；　it　is　also　a　matter　of　course　that　the　reason　for　these　differences　might　likewise　be　the　reason　for　a　great　many　others　not　yet　discovered；　and　yet　of　great　significance　to　criminalists。

Such　is　the　situation　with　regard　to　comparison。　Schiel　laid　much　emphasis　on　the　fact　that　two　lines　of　unequal　length　seem　equal　when　they　diverge；　although　their　difference　is　recognized　immediately　if　they　are　parallel；　close　together；　and　start　from　the　same　level。　He　says　that　the　situation　is　similar　in　all　comparison。　If　things　may　be　juxtaposed　they　can　be　compared；　if　not；　the　comparison　is　bound　to　be　bad。　There　is　no　question　of　illusion　here；　merely　of　convenience　of　manipulation。　Juxtaposition　is　frequently　important；　not　for　the　practical　convenience　of　comparison；　but　because　we　must　know　whether　the　witness　has　discovered　the　right　juxtaposition。　Only　if　he　has；　can　his　comparison　have　been　good。　To　discover　whether　he　has；　requires　careful　examination。

Conception　and　interpretation　are　considerably　dependent　on　the　interest　which　is　brought　to　the　object　examined。　There　is　a　story　of　a　child's　memory　of　an　old　man；　which　was　not　a　memory　of　the　_*whole_　man；　but　only　of　a　green　sleeve　and　a　wrinkled　hand　presenting　a　cake　of　chocolate。　The　child　was　interested　only　in　the　chocolate；　and　hence；　understood　it　and　its　nearest　environment　the　hand　and　the　sleeve。　We　may　easily　observe　similar　cases。　In　some　great　brawl　the　witness　may　have　seen　only　what　was　happening　to　his　brother。　The　numismatist　may　have　observed　only　a　bracelet　with　a　rare　coin　in　a　heap　of　stolen　valuables。　In　a　long　anarchistic　speech　the　witness　may　have　heard　only　what　threatened　his　own　welfare。　And　so　on。　The　very　thing　looks　different　if；　for　whatever　reason；　it　is　uninteresting　or　intensely　interesting。　A　color　is　quite　different　when　it　is　in　fashion；　a　flower　different　when　we　know　it　to　be　artificial；　the　sun　is　brighter　at　home；　and　home…grown　fruit　tastes　better。　But　there　is　still　another　group　of　specific　influences　on　our　conceptions　and　interpretations；　the　examples　of　which　have　been　increasing　unbrokenly。　One　of　these　is　the　variety　in　the　significance　of　words。　Words　have　become　symbols　of　concepts；　and　simple　words　have　come　to　mean　involved　mathematical　and　philosophical　ideas。　It　is　conceivable　that　two　men　may　connote　quite　different　things　by　the　word　‘‘symbol。''　And　even　in　thinking　and　construing；　in　making　use　of　perceived　facts；　different　conceptions　may　arise　through　presenting　the　fact　to　another　with　symbols；　that　to　him；　signify　different　things。　The　　difference　may　perhaps　not　be　great；　but　when　it　is　taken　in　connection　with　the　associations　and　suggestions　of　the　word　used；　small　mistakes　multiply　and　the　result　is　quite　different　from　what　it　might　have　been　if　another　meaning　had　been　the　starting…point。　The　use　of　foreign　words；　in　a　sense　different　from　that　used　by　us；　may　lead　us　far　astray。　It　must　be　borne　in　mind　that　the　meaning　of　the　foreign　word　frequently　does　not　coincide　with　the　sense　it　has　in　the　dictionary。　Hence；　it　is　dangerous　in　adducing　evidence　to　use　foreign　expressions　when　it　is　important　to　adhere　strictly　to　a　single　meaning。　Taine　says；　correctly：　‘‘Love　and　amour；　girl　and　jeune　fille；　song　and　chanson；　are　not　identical　although　they　are　substituted　for　one　another。''　It　is；　moreover；　pointed　out　that　children；　especially；　are　glad　to　substitute　and　alter　ideas　for　which　one　word　stands；　so　that　they　expand　or　contract　its　meaning　haphazard。　Bow…wow　may　first　mean　a　dog；　then　a　horse；　then　all　animals；　and　a　child　who　was　once　shown　a　fir　tree　in　the　forest　said　it　wasn't　a　fir　tree；　for　fir　trees　come　only　at　Christmas。

This　process　is　not　confined　to　children。　At　one　time　or　another　we　hear　a　word。　As　soon　as　we　hear　it　we　connect　it　with　an　idea。　This　connection　will　rarely　be　correct；　largely　because　we　have　heard　the　word　for　the　first　time。　Later；　we　get　our　idea　from　events　in　which　this　word　occurs；　of　course；　in　connection　with　the　object　we　instantaneously　understand　the　word　to　mean。　In　time　we　learn　another　word；　and　word　and　meaning　have　changed；　correctly　or　incorrectly。　A　comparison　of　these　changes　in　individuals　would　show　how　easy　both　approximations　and　diversifications　in　meaning　are。　It　must　follow　that　any　number　of　misunderstandings　can　develop；　and　many　an　alteration　in　the　conception　of　justice　and　decency；　considered　through　a　long　period；　may　become　very　significant　in　indicating　the　changes　in　the　meaning　of　words。　Many　a　time；　if　we　bear　thoroughly　in　mind　the　m