the history of the telephone-第12章

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were　his　friends。

At　five　years　of　age；　little　John　J。　Carty　was　taken　by　his　father　to　the　shop　where　the　bells　were　made；　and　he　was　profoundly　impressed　by　the　magical　strength　of　a　big　magnet；　that　picked　up　heavy　weights　as　though　they　were　feathers。　At　the　high　school　his　favorite　study　was　physics；　and　for　a　time　he　and　another　boy　named　Rolfenow　a　distinguished　man　of　sciencecarried　on　electrical　experiments　of　their　own　in　the　cellar　of　the　Rolfe　house。　Here　they　had　a　〃Tom　Thumb〃　telegraph；　a　telephone　which　they　had　ventured　to　improve；　and　a　hopeless　tangle　of　wires。　Whenever　they　could　afford　to　buy　more　wires　and　batteries；　they　went　to　a　near…by　store　which　supplied　electrical　apparatus　to　the　professors　and　students　of　Harvard。　This　store；　with　its　workshop　in　the　rear；　seemed　to　the　two　boys　a　veritable　wonderland；　and　when　Carty；　a　youth　of　eighteen；　was　compelled　to　leave　school　because　of　his　bad　eyesight；　he　ran　at　once　and　secured　the　glorious　job　of　being　boy…of…all…work　in　this　store　of　wonders。　So；　when　he　became　an　operator　in　the　Boston　telephone　exchange；　a　year　later；　he　had　already　developed　to　a　remarkable　degree　his　natural　genius　for　telephony。

Since　then；　Carty　and　the　telephone　business　have　grown　up　together；　he　always　a　little　distance　in　advance。　No　other　man　has　touched　the　apparatus　of　telephony　at　so　many　points。　He　fought　down　the　flimsy；　clumsy　methods；　which　led　from　one　snarl　to　another。　He　found　out　how　to　do　with　wires　what　Dickens　did　with　words。　〃Let　us　do　it　right；　boys；　and　then　we　won't　have　any　bad　dreams〃this　has　been　his　motif。　And；　as　the　crown　and　climax　of　his　work；　he　mapped　out　the　profession　of　telephone　engineering　on　the　widest　and　most　comprehensive　lines。

In　Carty；　the　engineer　evolved　into　the　edu…　cator。　His　end　of　the　American　Telephone　and　Telegraph　Company　became　the　University　of　the　Telephone。　He　was　himself　a　student　by　disposition；　with　a　special　taste　for　the　writings　of　Faraday；　the　forerunner；　Tyndall；　the　expounder；　and　Spencer；　the　philosopher。　And　in　1890；　he　gathered　around　him　a　winnowed　group　of　college　graduateshe　has　sixty　of　them　on　his　staff　to…dayso　that　he　might　bequeath　to　the　telephone　an　engineering　corps　of　loyal　and　efficient　men。

The　next　problem　that　faced　the　young　men　of　the　telephone；　as　soon　as　they　had　escaped　from　the　clamor　of　the　mysterious　noises；　was　the　necessity　of　taking　down　the　wires　in　the　city　streets　and　putting　them　underground。　At　first；　they　had　strung　the　wires　on　poles　and　roof…tops。　They　had　done　this；　not　because　it　was　cheap；　but　because　it　was　the　only　possible　way；　so　far　as　any　one　knew　in　that　kindergarten　period。　A　telephone　wire　required　the　daintiest　of　handling。　To　bury　it　was　to　smother　it；　to　make　it　dull　or　perhaps　entirely　useless。　But　now　that　the　number　of　wires　had　swollen　from　hun…　dreds　to　thousands；　the　overhead　method　had　been　outgrown。　Some　streets　in　the　larger　cities　had　become　black　with　wires。　Poles　had　risen　to　fifty　feet　in　height；　then　sixtyseventy　eighty。　Finally　the　highest　of　all　pole　lines　was　built　along　West　Street；　New　Yorkevery　pole　a　towering　Norway　pine；　with　its　top　ninety　feet　above　the　roadway；　and　carrying　thirty　cross…　arms　and　three　hundred　wires。

From　poles　the　wires　soon　overflowed　to　housetops；　until　in　New　York　alone　they　had　overspread　eleven　thousand　roofs。　These　roofs　had　to　be　kept　in　repair；　and　their　chimneys　were　the　deadly　enemies　of　the　iron　wires。　Many　a　wire；　in　less　than　two　or　three　years；　was　withered　to　the　merest　shred　of　rust。　As　if　these　troubles　were　not　enough；　there　were　the　storms　of　winter；　which　might　wipe　out　a　year's　revenue　in　a　single　day。　The　sleet　storms　were　the　worst。　Wires　were　weighted　down　with　ice；　often　three　pounds　of　ice　per　foot　of　wire。　And　so；　what　with　sleet；　and　corrosion；　and　the　cost　of　roof…repairing；　and　the　lack　of　room　for　more　wires；　the　telephone　men　were　between　the　devil　and　the　deep　seabetween　the　urgent　necessity　of　burying　their　wires；　and　the　inexorable　fact　that　they　did　not　know　how　to　do　it。

Fortunately；　by　the　time　that　this　problem　arrived；　the　telephone　business　was　fairly　well　established。　It　had　outgrown　its　early　days　of　ridicule　and　incredulity。　It　was　paying　wages　and　salaries　and　even　dividends。　Evidently　it　had　arrived　on　the　scene　in　the　nick　of　time　after　the　telegraph　and　before　the　trolleys　and　electric　lights。　Had　it　been　born　ten　years　later；　it　might　not　have　been　able　to　survive。　So　delicate　a　thing　as　a　baby　telephone　could　scarcely　have　protected　itself　against　the　powerful　currents　of　electricity　that　came　into　general　use　in　1886；　if　it　had　not　first　found　out　a　way　of　hiding　safely　underground。

The　first　declaration　in　favor　of　an　underground　system　was　made　by　the　Boston　company　in　1880。　〃It　may　be　expedient　to　place　our　entire　system　underground；〃　said　the　sorely　perplexed　manager；　〃whenever　a　practicable　method　is　found　of　accomplishing：　it。〃　All　manner　of　theories　were　afloat　but　Theodore　N。　Vail；　who　was　usually　the　man　of　constructive　imagination　in　emergencies；　began　in　1882　a　series　of　actual　experiments　at　Attleborough；　Massachusetts；　to　find　out　exactly　what　could；　and　what　could　not；　be　done　with　wires　that　were　buried　in　the　earth。

A　five…mile　trench　was　dug　beside　a　railway　track。　The　work　was　done　handily　and　cheaply　by　the　labor…saving　plan　of　hitching　a　locomotive　to　a　plough。　Five　ploughs　were　jerked　apart　before　the　work　was　finished。　Then；　into　this　trench　were　laid　wires　with　every　known　sort　of　covering。　Most　of　them；　naturally；　were　wrapped　with　rubber　or　gutta…percha；　after　the　fashion　of　a　submarine　cable。　When　all　were　in　place；　the　willing　locomotive　was　harnessed　to　a　huge　wooden　drag；　which　threw　the　ploughed　soil　back　into　the　trench　and　covered　the　wires　a　foot　deep。　It　was　the　most　professional　cable…　laying　that　any　one　at　that　time　could　do；　and　it　succeeded；　not　brilliantly；　but　well　enough　to　encourage　the　telephone　engineers　to　go　ahead。

Several　weeks　later；　the　first　two　cables　for　actual　use　were　laid　in　Boston　and　Brooklyn；　and　in　1883　Engineer　J。　P。　Davis　was　set　to　grapple　with　the　Herculean　labor　of　putting　a

complete　underground　system　in　the　wire…bound　city　of　New　York。　This　he　did　in　spite　of　a　bombardment　of　explosions　from　leaky　gas…　pipes；　and　with　a　woeful　lack　of　experts　and　standard　materials。　All　manner　of　makeshifts　had　to　be　tried　in　place　of　tile　ducts；　which　were　not　known　in　1883。　Iron　pipe　was　used　at　first；　then　asphalt；　concrete；　boxes　of　sand　and　creosoted　wood。　As　for　the　wires；　they　were　first　wrapped　in　cotton；　and　then　twisted　into　cables；　usually　of　a　hundred　wires　each。　And　to　prevent　the　least　taint　of　moisture；　which　means　sudden　death　to　a　telephone　current；　these　cables　were　invariably　soaked　in　oil。

This　oil…filled　type　of　cable　carried　the　telephone　business　safely　through　half　a　dozen　years。　But　it　was　not　the　final　type。　It　was　preliminary　only；　the　best　that　could　be　made　at　that　time。　Not　one　is　in　use　to…day。　In　1888　Theodore　Vail　set　on　foot　a　second　series　of　experiments；　to　see　if　a　cable　could　be　made　that　was　better　suited　as　a　highway　for　the　delicate　electric　currents　of　the　telephone。　A　young　engineer　named　John　A。　Barrett；　who　had　already　made　his　mark　as　an　expert；　by　finding　a　way　to　twist　and　transpose　the　wires；　was　set　apart　to　tackle　this　problem。　Being　an　economical　Vermonter；　Barrett　went　to　work　in　a　little　wooden　shed　in　the　backyard　of　a　Brooklyn　foundry。　In　this　foundry　he　had　seen　a　unique　machine　that　could　be　made　to　mould　hot　lead　around　a　rope　of　twisted　wires。　This　was　a　notable　discovery。　It　meant　TIGHT　COVERINGS。　It　meant　a　victory　over　that　most　troublesome　of　enemiesmoisture。　Also；　it　meant　that　cables　could　henceforth　be　made　longer；　with　fewer　sleeves　and　splices；　and　without　the　oil；　which　had　always　been　an　unmitigated　nuisance。

Next；　having　made　the　cable　tight；　Barrett　set　out　to　produce　it　more　cheaply　and　by　accident　stumbled　upon　a　way　to　make　it　immensely　more　efficient。　All　wires　were　at　that　time　wrapped　with　cotton；　and　his　plan　was　to　find　some　less　costly　material　that　would　serve　the　same　purpose。　One　of　his　workmen；　a　Virginian；　suggested　the　use　of　paper　twine；　which　had　been　used　in　the　South　during　the　Civil　War；　when　cotton　was　scarce　and　expensive。　Barrett　at　once　searched　the　South　for　paper　twine　and　found　it。　He　bought　a　barrel　of　it　from　a　small　factory　in　Richmond；　but　after　a　trial　it　proved　to　be　too　flimsy。　If　such　paper　could　be　put　on　flat；　he　reasoned；　it　would　be　stronger。　Just　then　he　heard　of　an　erratic　genius　who　had　an　invention　for　winding　paper　tape　on　wire　for　the　use　of　milliners。

Paper…wound　bonnet…wire！　Who　could　imagine　any　connection　between　this　and　the　telephone？　Yet　this　hint　was　exactly　what　Barrett　needed。　He　experimented　until　he　had　devised　a　machine　that　crumpled　the　paper　around　the　wire；　instead　of　winding　it　tightly。　This　was　the　finishing　touch。　For　a　time　these　paper…wound　cables　were　soaked　in　oil；　but　in　1890　Engineer　F。　A。　Pickernell　dared　to　trust　to　the　tightness　of　the　lead　sheathing；　and　laid　a　〃dry　core〃　cable；　the　first　of　the　modern　type；　in　one　of　the　streets　of　Philadelphia。　This　cable　was　the　event　of　the　year。　It　was　not　only　cheaper。　It　was　the　best…talking　cable　that　had　ever　been　harnessed　to　a　telephone。

What　Barrett　had　done　was　soon　made　clear。　By　wrapping　the　wire　with　loose　paper；　he　had　in　reality　cushioned　it　with　AIR；　which　is　the　best　possible　insulator。　Not　the　paper；　but　the　air　in　the　paper；　had　improved　the　cable。　More　air　was　added　by　the　omission　of　the　oil。　And　presently　Barrett　perceived　that　he　had　merely　reproduced　in　a　cable；　as　far　as　possible；　the　conditions　of　the　overhead　wires；　which　are　separated　by　nothing　but　air。

By　1896　there　were　two　hundred　thousand　miles　of　wire　snugly　wrapped　in　paper　and　lying　in　leaden　caskets　beneath　the　streets　of　the　cities；　and　to…day　there　are　six　million　miles　of　it　owned　by　the　affiliated　Bell　companies。　Instead　of　blackening　the　streets；　the　wire　nerves　of　the　telephone　are　now　out　of　sight　under　the　roadway；　and　twining　into　the　basements　of　buildings　like　a　new　sort　of　metallic　ivy。　Some　cables　are　so　large　that　a　single　spool　of　cable　will　weigh　twenty…six　tons　and　require　a　giant　truck　and　a　sixteen…horse　team　to　haul　it　to　its　resting…place。　As　many　as　twelve　hundred　wires　are　often　bunched　into　one　sheath；　and　each　cable　lies　loosely　in　a　little　duct　of　its　own。　It　is　reached　by　manholes　where　it　runs　under　the　streets　and　in　little　switching…boxes　placed　at　intervals　it　is　frayed　out　into　separate　pairs　of　wires　that　blossom　at　length　into　telephones。

Out　in　the　open　country　there　are　still　the　open　wires；　which　in　point　of　talking　are　the　best。　In　the　suburbs　of　cities　there　are　neat　green　posts　with　a　single　gray　cable　hung　from　a　heavy　wire。　Usually；　a　telephone　pole　is　made　from　a　sixty…year…old　tree；　a　cedar；　chestnut；　or　juniper。　It　lasts　twelve　years　only；　so　that　the　one　item　of　poles　is　still　costing　the　telephone　companies　several　millions　a　year。　The　total　number　of　poles　now　in　the　United　States；　used　by　telephone　and　telegraph　companies；　once　covered　an　area；　before　they　were　cut　down；　as　l