darwin and modern science-第119章

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dea　of　Selection　suggests。　　They　are　eager　to　defend　this　or　that　thesis。　　In　the　name　of　this　idea　certain　social　anthropologists　have　recast　the　conception　of　the　process　of　civilisation；　and　have　affirmed　that　Social　Selection　generally　works　against　the　trend　of　Natural　Selection。　　Vacher　de　Lapougefollowing　up　an　observation　by　Broca　on　the　pointenumerates　the　various　institutions；　or　customs；　such　as　the　celibacy　of　priests　and　military　conscription；　which　cause　elimination　or　sterilisation　of　the　bearers　of　certain　superior　qualities；　intellectual　or　physical。　　In　a　more　general　way　he　attacks　the　democratic　movement；　a　movement；　as　P。　Bourget　says；　which　is　〃anti…physical〃　and　contrary　to　the　natural　laws　of　progress；　though　it　has　been　inspired　〃by　the　dreams　of　that　most　visionary　of　all　centuries；　the　eighteenth。〃　　（V。　de　Lapouge；　〃Les　Selections　sociales〃；　page　259；　Paris；　1896。）　　The　〃Equality〃　which　levels　down　and　mixes　（justly　condemned；　he　holds；　by　the　Comte　de　Gobineau）；　prevents　the　aristocracy　of　the　blond　dolichocephales　from　holding　the　position　and　playing　the　part　which；　in　the　interests　of　all；　should　belong　to　them。　　Otto　Ammon；　in　his　〃Natural　Selection　in　Man〃；　and　in　〃The　Social　Order　and　its　Natural　Bases〃　（〃Die　naturliche　Auslese　beim　Menschen〃；　Jena；　1893；　〃Die　Gesellschaftsordnung　und　ihre　naturlichen　Grundlagen〃。　　〃Entwurf　einer　Sozialanthropologie〃；　Jena；　1896。）；　defended　analogous　doctrines　in　Germany；　setting　the　curve　representing　frequency　of　talent　over　against　that　of　income；　he　attempted　to　show　that　all　democratic　measures　which　aim　at　promoting　the　rise　in　the　social　scale　of　the　talented　are　useless；　if　not　dangerous；　that　they　only　increase　the　panmixia；　to　the　great　detriment　of　the　species　and　of　society。

Among　the　aristocratic　theories　which　Darwinism　has　thus　inspired　we　must　reckon　that　of　Nietzsche。　　It　is　well　known　that　in　order　to　complete　his　philosophy　he　added　biological　studies　to　his　philological；　and　more　than　once　in　his　remarks　upon　the　〃Wille　zur　Macht〃　he　definitely　alludes　to　Darwin；　though　it　must　be　confessed　that　it　is　generally　in　order　to　proclaim　the　in　sufficiency　of　the　processes　by　which　Darwin　seeks　to　explain　the　genesis　of　species。　　Nevertheless；　Nietzsche's　mind　is　completely　possessed　by　an　ideal　of　Selection。　　He；　too；　has　a　horror　of　panmixia。　　The　naturalists'　conception　of　〃the　fittest〃　is　joined　by　him　to　that　of　the　〃hero〃　of　romance　to　furnish　a　basis　for　his　doctrine　of　the　Superman。　　Let　us　hasten　to　add；　moreover；　that　at　the　very　moment　when　support　was　being　sought　in　the　theory　of　Selection　for　the　various　forms　of　the　aristocratic　doctrine；　those　same　forms　were　being　battered　down　on　another　side　by　means　of　that　very　theory。　　Attention　was　drawn　to　the　fact　that　by　virtue　of　the　laws　which　Darwin　himself　had　discovered　isolation　leads　to　etiolation。　　There　is　a　risk　that　the　privilege　which　withdraws　the　privileged　elements　of　Society　from　competition　will　cause　them　to　degenerate。　　In　fact；　Jacoby　in　his　〃Studies　in　Selection；　in　connexion　with　Heredity　in　Man〃；　（〃Etudes　sur　la　Selection　dans　ses　rapports　avec　l'heredite　chez　l'homme〃；　Paris；　page　481；　1881。）；　concludes　that　〃sterility；　mental　debility；　premature　death　and；　finally；　the　extinction　of　the　stock　were　not　specially　and　exclusively　the　fate　of　sovereign　dynasties；　all　privileged　classes；　all　families　in　exclusively　elevated　positions　share　the　fate　of　reigning　families；　although　in　a　minor　degree　and　in　direct　proportion　to　the　loftiness　of　their　social　standing。　　From　the　mass　of　human　beings　spring　individuals；　families；　races；　which　tend　to　raise　themselves　above　the　common　level；　painfully　they　climb　the　rugged　heights；　attain　the　summits　of　power；　of　wealth；　of　intelligence；　of　talent；　and　then；　no　sooner　are　they　there　than　they　topple　down　and　disappear　in　gulfs　of　mental　and　physical　degeneracy。〃　　The　demographical　researches　of　Hansen　（〃Die　drei　Bevolkerungsstufen〃；　Munich；　1889。）　（following　up　and　completing　Dumont's）　tended；　indeed；　to　show　that　urban　as　well　as　feudal　aristocracies；　burgher　classes　as　well　as　noble　castes；　were　liable　to　become　effete。　　Hence　it　might　well　be　concluded　that　the　democratic　movement；　operating　as　it　does　to　break　down　class　barriers；　was　promoting　instead　of　impeding　human　selection。

So　we　see　that；　according　to　the　point　of　view；　very　different　conclusions　have　been　drawn　from　the　application　of　the　Darwinian　idea　of　Selection　to　human　society。　　Darwin's　other　central　idea；　closely　bound　up　with　this；　that；　namely；　of　the　〃struggle　for　existence〃　also　has　been　diversely　utilised。　　But　discussion　has　chiefly　centered　upon　its　signification。　　And　while　some　endeavour　to　extend　its　application　to　everything；　we　find　others　trying　to　limit　its　range。　　The　conception　of　a　〃struggle　for　existence〃　has　in　the　present　day　been　taken　up　into　the　social　sciences　from　natural　science；　and　adopted。　　But　originally　it　descended　from　social　science　to　natural。　　Darwin's　law　is；　as　he　himself　said；　only　Malthus'　law　generalised　and　extended　to　the　animal　world：　　a　growing　disproportion　between　the　supply　of　food　and　the　number　of　the　living　is　the　fatal　order　whence　arises　the　necessity　of　universal　struggle；　a　struggle　which；　to　the　great　advantage　of　the　species；　allows　only　the　best　equipped　individuals　to　survive。　　Nature　is　regarded　by　Huxley　as　an　immense　arena　where　all　living　beings　are　gladiators。　　（〃Evolution　and　Ethics〃；　page　200；　〃Collected　Essays〃；　Vol。　IX；　London；　1894。）

Such　a　generalisation　was　well　adapted　to　feed　the　stream　of　pessimistic　thought；　and　it　furnished　to　the　apologists　of　war；　in　particular；　new　arguments；　weighted　with　all　the　authority　which　in　these　days　attaches　to　scientific　deliverances。　　If　people　no　longer　say；　as　Bonald　did；　and　Moltke　after　him；　that　war　is　a　providential　fact；　they　yet　lay　stress　on　the　point　that　it　is　a　natural　fact。　　To　the　peace　party　Dragomirov's　objection　is　urged　that　its　attempts　are　contrary　to　the　fundamental　laws　of　nature；　and　that　no　sea　wall　can　hold　against　breakers　that　come　with　such　gathered　force。

But　in　yet　another　quarter　Darwinism　was　represented　as　opposed　to　philanthropic　intervention。　　The　defenders　of　the　orthodox　political　economy　found　in　it　support　for　their　tenets。　　Since　in　the　organic　world　universal　struggle　is　the　condition　of　progress；　it　seemed　obvious　that　free　competition　must　be　allowed　to　reign　unchecked　in　the　economic　world。　Attempts　to　curb　it　were　in　the　highest　degree　imprudent。　　The　spirit　of　Liberalism　here　seemed　in　conformity　with　the　trend　of　nature：　　in　this　respect；　at　least；　contemporary　naturalism；　offspring　of　the　discoveries　of　the　nineteenth　century；　brought　reinforcements　to　the　individualist　doctrine；　begotten　of　the　speculations　of　the　eighteenth：　　but　only；　it　appeared；　to　turn　mankind　away　for　ever　from　humanitarian　dreams。　　Would　those　whom　such　conclusions　repelled　be　content　to　oppose　to　nature's　imperatives　only　the　protests　of　the　heart？　　There　were　some　who　declared；　like　Brunetiere；　that　the　laws　in　question；　valid　though　they　might　be　for　the　animal　kingdom；　were　not　applicable　to　the　human。　　And　so　a　return　was　made　to　the　classic　dualism。　　This　indeed　seems　to　be　the　line　that　Huxley　took；　when；　for　instance；　he　opposed　to　the　cosmic　process　an　ethical　process　which　was　its　reverse。

But　the　number　of　thinkers　whom　this　antithesis　does　not　satisfy　grows　daily。　　Although　the　pessimism　which　claims　authorisation　from　Darwin's　doctrines　is　repugnant　to　them；　they　still　are　unable　to　accept　the　dualism　which　leaves　a　gulf　between　man　and　nature。　　And　their　endeavour　is　to　link　the　two　by　showing　that　while　Darwin's　laws　obtain　in　both　kingdoms；　the　conditions　of　their　application　are　not　the　same：　　their　forms；　and；　consequently；　their　results；　vary　with　the　varying　mediums　in　which　the　struggle　of　living　beings　takes　place；　with　the　means　these　beings　have　at　disposal；　with　the　ends　even　which　they　propose　to　themselves。

Here　we　have　the　explanation　of　the　fact　that　among　determined　opponents　of　war　partisans　of　the　〃struggle　for　existence〃　can　be　found：　　there　are　disciples　of　Darwin　in　the　peace　party。　　Novicow；　for　example；　admits　the　〃combat　universel〃　of　which　Le　Dantec　（〃Les　Luttes　entre　Societies　humaines　et　leurs　phases　successives〃；　Paris；　1893；）　speaks；　but　he　remarks　that　at　different　stages　of　evolution；　at　different　stages　of　life　the　same　weapons　are　not　necessarily　employed。　　Struggles　of　brute　force；　armed　hand　to　hand　conflicts；　may　have　been　a　necessity　in　the　early　phases　of　human　societies。　　Nowadays；　although　competition　may　remain　inevitable　and　indispensable；　it　can　assume　milder　forms。　　Economic　rivalries；　struggles　between　intellectual　influences；　suffice　to　stimulate　progress：　　the　processes　which　these　admit　are；　in　the　actual　state　of　civilisation；　the　only　ones　which　attain　their　end　without　waste；　the　only　ones　logical。　　From　one　end　to　the　other　of　the　ladder　of　life；　struggle　is　the　order　of　the　day；　but　more　and　more　as　the　higher　rungs　are　reached；　it　takes　on　characters　which　are　proportionately　more　〃humane。〃

Reflections　of　this　kind　permit　the　introduction　into　the　economic　order　of　limitations　to　the　doctrine　of　〃laisser　faire；　laisser　passer。〃　　This　appeals；　it　is　said；　to　the　example　of　nature　where　creatures；　left　to　themselves；　struggle　without　truce　and　without　mercy；　but　the　fact　is　forgotten　that　upon　industrial　battlefields　the　conditions　are　different。　The　competitors　here　are　not　left　simply　to　their　natural　energies：　　they　are　variously　handicapped。　　A　rich　store　of　artificial　resources　exists　in　which　some　participate　and　others　do　not。　　The　sides　then　are　unequal；　and　as　a　consequence　the　result　of　the　struggle　is　falsified。　　〃In　the　animal　world；〃　said　De　Laveleye　（〃Le　socialisme　contemporain〃；　page　384　（6th　edition）；　Paris；　1891。）；　criticising　Spencer；　〃the　fate　of　each　creature　is　determined　by　its　individual　qualities；　whereas　in　civilised　societies　a　man　may　obtain　the　highest　position　and　the　most　beautiful　wife　because　he　is　rich　and　well…born；　although　he　may　be　ugly；　idle　or　improvident；　and　then　it　is　he　who　will　perpetuate　the　species。　　The　wealthy　man；　ill　constituted；　incapable；　sickly；　enjoys　his　riches　and　establishes　his　stock　under　the　protection　of　the　laws。〃　　Haycraft　in　England　and　Jentsch　in　Germany　have　strongly　emphasised　these　〃anomalies；〃　which　nevertheless　are　the　rule。　　That　is　to　say　that　even　from　a　Darwinian　point　of　view　all　social　reforms　can　readily　be　justified　which　aim　at　diminishing；　as　Wallace　said；　inequalities　at　the　start。

But　we　can　go　further　still。　　Whence　comes　the　idea　that　all　measures　inspired　by　the　sentiment　of　solidarity　are　contrary　to　Nature's　trend？　　Observe　her　carefully；　and　she　will　not　give　lessons　only　in　individualism。　Side　by　side　with　the　struggle　for　existence　do　we　not　find　in　operation　what　Lanessan　calls　〃association　for　existence。〃　　Long　ago；　Espinas　had　drawn　attention　to　〃societies　of　animals；〃　temporary　or　permanent；　and　to　the　kind　of　morality　that　arose　in　them。　　Since　then；　naturalists　have　often　insisted　upon　the　importance　of　various　forms　of　symbiosis。　　Kropotkin　in　〃Mutual　Aid〃　has　ch