darwin and modern science-第135章

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te；　and　followed　him；　or　rather　outdid　him；　in　regarding　intellect　as　the　most　important　factor　conditioning　the　upward　development　of　man；　so　that　progress；　according　to　him；　consisted　in　the　victory　of　the　intellectual　over　the　moral　laws。

10。　　The　tendency　of　Comte　and　Buckle　to　assimilate　history　to　the　sciences　of　nature　by　reducing　it　to　general　〃laws；〃　derived　stimulus　and　plausibility　from　the　vista　offered　by　the　study　of　statistics；　in　which　the　Belgian　Quetelet；　whose　book　〃Sur　l'homme〃　appeared　in　1835；　discerned　endless　possibilities。　　The　astonishing　uniformities　which　statistical　inquiry　disclosed　led　to　the　belief　that　it　was　only　a　question　of　collecting　a　sufficient　amount　of　statistical　material；　to　enable　us　to　predict　how　a　given　social　group　will　act　in　a　particular　case。　　Bourdeau；　a　disciple　of　this　school；　looks　forward　to　the　time　when　historical　science　will　become　entirely　quantitative。　　The　actions　of　prominent　individuals；　which　are　generally　considered　to　have　altered　or　determined　the　course　of　things；　are　obviously　not　amenable　to　statistical　computation　or　explicable　by　general　laws。　　Thinkers　like　Buckle　sought　to　minimise　their　importance　or　explain　them　away。

11。　　These　indications　may　suffice　to　show　that　the　new　efforts　to　interpret　history　which　marked　the　first　half　of　the　nineteenth　century　were　governed　by　conceptions　closely　related　to　those　which　were　current　in　the　field　of　natural　science　and　which　resulted　in　the　doctrine　of　evolution。　　The　genetic　principle；　progressive　development；　general　laws；　the　significance　of　time；　the　conception　of　society　as　an　organic　aggregate；　the　metaphysical　theory　of　history　as　the　self…evolution　of　spirit；all　these　ideas　show　that　historical　inquiry　had　been　advancing　independently　on　somewhat　parallel　lines　to　the　sciences　of　nature。　　It　was　necessary　to　bring　this　out　in　order　to　appreciate　the　influence　of　Darwinism。

12。　　In　the　course　of　the　dozen　years　which　elapsed　between　the　appearances　of　〃The　Origin　of　Species〃　（observe　that　the　first　volume　of　Buckle's　work　was　published　just　two　years　before）　and　of　〃The　Descent　of　Man〃　（1871）；　the　hypothesis　of　Lamarck　that　man　is　the　co…descendant　with　other　species　of　some　lower　extinct　form　was　admitted　to　have　been　raised　to　the　rank　of　an　established　fact　by　most　thinkers　whose　brains　were　not　working　under　the　constraint　of　theological　authority。

One　important　effect　of　the　discovery　of　this　fact　（I　am　not　speaking　now　of　the　Darwinian　explanation）　was　to　assign　to　history　a　definite　place　in　the　coordinated　whole　of　knowledge；　and　relate　it　more　closely　to　other　sciences。　　It　had　indeed　a　defined　logical　place　in　systems　such　as　Hegel's　and　Comte's；　but　Darwinism　certified　its　standing　convincingly　and　without　more　ado。　　The　prevailing　doctrine　that　man　was　created　ex　abrupto　had　placed　history　in　an　isolated　position；　disconnected　with　the　sciences　of　nature。　　Anthropology；　which　deals　with　the　animal　anthropos；　now　comes　into　line　with　zoology；　and　brings　it　into　relation　with　history。　　（It　is　to　be　observed　that　history　is　（not　only　different　in　scope　but）　not　coextensive　with　anthropology　IN　TIME。　　For　it　deals　only　with　the　development　of　man　in　societies；　whereas　anthropology　includes　in　its　definition　the　proto…anthropic　period　when　anthropos　was　still　non…social；　whether　he　lived　in　herds　like　the　chimpanzee；　or　alone　like　the　male　ourang…outang。　　（It　has　been　well　shown　by　Majewski　that　congregations　herds；　flocks；　packs；　etc。of　animals　are　not　SOCIETIES；　the　characteristic　of　a　society　is　differentiation　of　function。　　Bee　hives；　ant　hills；　may　be　called　quasi…societies；　but　in　their　case　the　classes　which　perform　distinct　functions　are　morphologically　different。）　　Man's　condition　at　the　present　day　is　the　result　of　a　series　of　transformations；　going　back　to　the　most　primitive　phase　of　society；　which　is　the　ideal　（unattainable）　beginning　of　history。　　But　that　beginning　had　emerged　without　any　breach　of　continuity　from　a　development　which　carries　us　back　to　a　quadrimane　ancestor；　still　further　back　（according　to　Darwin's　conjecture）　to　a　marine　animal　of　the　ascidian　type；　and　then　through　remoter　periods　to　the　lowest　form　of　organism。　　It　is　essential　in　this　theory　that　though　links　have　been　lost　there　was　no　break　in　the　gradual　development；　and　this　conception　of　a　continuous　progress　in　the　evolution　of　life；　resulting　in　the　appearance　of　uncivilised　Anthropos；　helped　to　reinforce；　and　increase　a　belief　in；　the　conception　of　the　history　of　civilised　Anthropos　as　itself　also　a　continuous　progressive　development。

13。　　Thus　the　diffusion　of　the　Darwinian　theory　of　the　origin　of　man；　by　emphasising　the　idea　of　continuity　and　breaking　down　the　barriers　between　the　human　and　animal　kingdoms；　has　had　an　important　effect　in　establishing　the　position　of　history　among　the　sciences　which　deal　with　telluric　development。　　The　perspective　of　history　is　merged　in　a　larger　perspective　of　development。　　As　one　of　the　objects　of　biology　is　to　find　the　exact　steps　in　the　genealogy　of　man　from　the　lowest　organic　form；　so　the　scope　of　history　is　to　determine　the　stages　in　the　unique　causal　series　from　the　most　rudimentary　to　the　present　state　of　human　civilisation。

It　is　to　be　observed　that　the　interest　in　historical　research　implied　by　this　conception　need　not　be　that　of　Comte。　　In　the　Positive　Philosophy　history　is　part　of　sociology；　the　interest　in　it　is　to　discover　the　sociological　laws。　　In　the　view　of　which　I　have　just　spoken；　history　is　permitted　to　be　an　end　in　itself；　the　reconstruction　of　the　genetic　process　is　an　independent　interest。　　For　the　purpose　of　the　reconstruction；　sociology；　as　well　as　physical　geography；　biology；　psychology；　is　necessary；　the　sociologist　and　the　historian　play　into　each　other's　hands；　but　the　object　of　the　former　is　to　establish　generalisations；　the　aim　of　the　latter　is　to　trace　in　detail　a　singular　causal　sequence。

14。　　The　success　of　the　evolutional　theory　helped　to　discredit　the　assumption　or　at　least　the　invocation　of　transcendent　causes。　　Philosophically　of　course　it　is　compatible　with　theism；　but　historians　have　for　the　most　part　desisted　from　invoking　the　naive　conception　of　a　〃god　in　history〃　to　explain　historical　movements。　　A　historian　may　be　a　theist；　but；　so　far　as　his　work　is　concerned；　this　particular　belief　is　otiose。　　Otherwise　indeed　（as　was　remarked　above）　history　could　not　be　a　science；　for　with　a　deus　ex　machina　who　can　be　brought　on　the　stage　to　solve　difficulties　scientific　treatment　is　a　farce。　　The　transcendent　element　had　appeared　in　a　more　subtle　form　through　the　influence　of　German　philosophy。　　I　noticed　how　Ranke　is　prone　to　refer　to　ideas　as　if　they　were　transcendent　existences　manifesting　themselves　in　the　successive　movements　of　history。　　It　is　intelligible　to　speak　of　certain　ideas　as　controlling；　in　a　given　period；for　instance；　the　idea　of　nationality；　but　from　the　scientific　point　of　view；　such　ideas　have　no　existence　outside　the　minds　of　individuals　and　are　purely　psychical　forces；　and　a　historical　〃idea；〃　if　it　does　not　exist　in　this　form；　is　merely　a　way　of　expressing　a　synthesis　of　the　historian　himself。

15。　　From　the　more　general　influence　of　Darwinism　on　the　place　of　history　in　the　system　of　human　knowledge；　we　may　turn　to　the　influence　of　the　principles　and　methods　by　which　Darwin　explained　development。　　It　had　been　recognised　even　by　ancient　writers　（such　as　Aristotle　and　Polybius）　that　physical　circumstances　（geography；　climate）　were　factors　conditioning　the　character　and　history　of　a　race　or　society。　　In　the　sixteenth　century　Bodin　emphasised　these　factors；　and　many　subsequent　writers　took　them　into　account。　　The　investigations　of　Darwin；　which　brought　them　into　the　foreground；　naturally　promoted　attempts　to　discover　in　them　the　chief　key　to　the　growth　of　civilisation。　　Comte　had　expressly　denounced　the　notion　that　the　biological　methods　of　Lamarck　could　be　applied　to　social　man。　　Buckle　had　taken　account　of　natural　influences；　but　had　relegated　them　to　a　secondary　plane；　compared　with　psychological　factors。　　But　the　Darwinian　theory　made　it　tempting　to　explain　the　development　of　civilisation　in　terms　of　〃adaptation　to　environment；〃　〃struggle　for　existence；〃　〃natural　selection；〃　〃survival　of　the　fittest；〃　etc。　（Recently　O。　Seeck　has　applied　these　principles　to　the　decline　of　Graeco…Roman　civilisation　in　his　〃Untergang　der　antiken　Welt〃；　2　volumes；　Berlin；　1895；　1901。）

The　operation　of　these　principles　cannot　be　denied。　　Man　is　still　an　animal；　subject　to　zoological　as　well　as　mechanical　laws。　　The　dark　influence　of　heredity　continues　to　be　effective；　and　psychical　development　had　begun　in　lower　organic　forms；perhaps　with　life　itself。　　The　organic　and　the　social　struggles　for　existence　are　manifestations　of　the　same　principle。　　Environment　and　climatic　influence　must　be　called　in　to　explain　not　only　the　differentiation　of　the　great　racial　sections　of　humanity；　but　also　the　varieties　within　these　sub…species　and；　it　may　be；　the　assimilation　of　distinct　varieties。　　Ritter's　〃Anthropogeography〃　has　opened　a　useful　line　of　research。　　But　on　the　other　hand；　it　is　urged　that；　in　explaining　the　course　of　history；　these　principles　do　not　take　us　very　far；　and　that　it　is　chiefly　for　the　primitive　ultra…prehistoric　period　that　they　can　account　for　human　development。　　It　may　be　said　that；　so　far　as　concerns　the　actions　and　movements　of　men　which　are　the　subject　of　recorded　history；　physical　environment　has　ceased　to　act　mechanically；　and　in　order　to　affect　their　actions　must　affect　their　wills　first；　and　that　this　psychical　character　of　the　causal　relations　substantially　alters　the　problem。　　The　development　of　human　societies；　it　may　be　argued；　derives　a　completely　new　character　from　the　dominance　of　the　conscious　psychical　element；　creating　as　it　does　new　conditions　（inventions；　social　institutions；　etc。）　which　limit　and　counteract　the　operation　of　natural　selection；　and　control　and　modify　the　influence　of　physical　environment。　　Most　thinkers　agree　now　that　the　chief　clews　to　the　growth　of　civilisation　must　be　sought　in　the　psychological　sphere。　　Imitation；　for　instance；　is　a　principle　which　is　probably　more　significant　for　the　explanation　of　human　development　than　natural　selection。　　Darwin　himself　was　conscious　that　his　principles　had　only　a　very　restricted　application　in　this　sphere；　as　is　evident　from　his　cautious　and　tentative　remarks　in　the　5th　chapter　of　his　〃Descent　of　Man〃。　　He　applied　natural　selection　to　the　growth　of　the　intellectual　faculties　and　of　the　fundamental　social　instincts；　and　also　to　the　differentiation　of　the　great　races　or　〃sub…species〃　（Caucasian；　African；　etc。）　which　differ　in　anthropological　character。　　（Darwinian　formulae　may　be　suggestive　by　way　of　analogy。　　For　instance；　it　is　characteristic　of　social　advance　that　a　multitude　of　inventions；　schemes　and　plans　are　framed　which　are　never　carried　out；　similar　to；　or　designed　for　the　same　end　as；　an　invention　or　plan　which　is　actually　adopted　because　it　has　chanced　to　suit　better　the　particular　conditions　of　the　hour　（just　as　the　works　accomplished　by　an　individual　statesman；　artist　or　savant　are　usually　only　a　residue　of　the　numerous　projects　c