darwin and modern science-第34章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


　which　feels　for　the　most　debased；　with　benevolence　which　extends　not　only　to　other　men　but　to　the　humblest　living　creature；　with　his　god…like　intellect　which　has　penetrated　into　the　movements　and　constitution　of　the　solar　systemwith　all　these　exalted　powersMan　still　bears　in　his　bodily　frame　the　indelible　stamp　of　his　lowly　origin。〃　　（Ibid。　page　947。）

What　has　been　the　fate　of　Darwin's　doctrines　since　his　great　achievement？　　How　have　they　been　received　and　followed　up　by　the　scientific　and　lay　world？　　And　what　do　the　successors　of　the　mighty　hero　and　genius　think　now　in　regard　to　the　origin　of　the　human　race？

At　the　present　time　we　are　incomparably　more　favourably　placed　than　Darwin　was　for　answering　this　question　of　all　questions。　　We　have　at　our　command　an　incomparably　greater　wealth　of　material　than　he　had　at　his　disposal。　　And　we　are　more　fortunate　than　he　in　this　respect；　that　we　now　know　transition…forms　which　help　to　fill　up　the　gap；　still　great；　between　the　lowest　human　races　and　the　highest　apes。　　Let　us　consider　for　a　little　the　more　essential　additions　to　our　knowledge　since　the　publication　of　〃The　Descent　of　Man〃。

Since　that　time　our　knowledge　of　animal　embryos　has　increased　enormously。　While　Darwin　was　obliged　to　content　himself　with　comparing　a　human　embryo　with　that　of　a　dog；　there　are　now　available　the　youngest　embryos　of　monkeys　of　all　possible　groups　（Orang；　Gibbon；　Semnopithecus；　Macacus）；　thanks　to　Selenka's　most　successful　tour　in　the　East　Indies　in　search　of　such　material。　　We　can　now　compare　corresponding　stages　of　the　lower　monkeys　and　of　the　Anthropoid　apes　with　human　embryos；　and　convince　ourselves　of　their　great　resemblance　to　one　another；　thus　strengthening　enormously　the　armour　prepared　by　Darwin　in　defence　of　his　view　on　man's　nearest　relatives。　　It　may　be　said　that　Selenka's　material　fils　up　the　blanks　in　Darwin's　array　of　proofs　in　the　most　satisfactory　manner。

The　deepening　of　our　knowledge　of　comparative　anatomy　also　gives　us　much　surer　foundations　than　those　on　which　Darwin　was　obliged　to　build。　　Just　of　late　there　have　been　many　workers　in　the　domain　of　the　anatomy　of　apes　and　lemurs；　and　their　investigations　extend　to　the　most　different　organs。　　Our　knowledge　of　fossil　apes　and　lemurs　has　also　become　much　wider　and　more　exact　since　Darwin's　time：　　the　fossil　lemurs　have　been　especially　worked　up　by　Cope；　Forsyth　Major；　Ameghino；　and　others。　　Darwin　knew　very　little　about　fossil　monkeys。　　He　mentions　two　or　three　anthropoid　apes　as　occurring　in　the　Miocene　of　Europe　（〃Descent　of　Man〃；　page　240。）；　but　only　names　Dryopithecus；　the　largest　form　from　the　Miocene　of　France。　　It　was　erroneously　supposed　that　this　form　was　related　to　Hylobates。　　We　now　know　not　only　a　form　that　actually　stands　near　to　the　gibbon　（Pliopithecus）；　and　remains　of　other　anthropoids　（Pliohylobates　and　the　fossil　chimpanzee；　Palaeopithecus）；　but　also　several　lower　catarrhine　monkeys；　of　which　Mesopithecus；　a　form　nearly　related　to　the　modern　Sacred　Monkeys　（a　species　of　Semnopithecus）　and　found　in　strata　of　the　Miocene　period　in　Greece；　is　the　most　important。　　Quite　recently；　too；　Ameghino's　investigations　have　made　us　acquainted　with　fossil　monkeys　from　South　America　（Anthropops；　Homunculus）；　which；　according　to　their　discoverer；　are　to　be　regarded　as　in　the　line　of　human　descent。

What　Darwin　missed　most　of　allintermediate　forms　between　apes　and　man　has　been　recently　furnished。　　（E。　Dubois；　as　is　well　known；　discovered　in　1893；　near　Trinil　in　Java；　in　the　alluvial　deposits　of　the　river　Bengawan；　an　important　form　represented　by　a　skull…cap；　some　molars；　and　a　femur。　　His　opinionmuch　disputed　as　it　has　beenthat　in　this　form；　which　he　named　Pithecanthropus；　he　has　found　a　long…desired　transition…form　is　shared　by　the　present　writer。　　And　although　the　geological　age　of　these　fossils；　which；　according　to　Dubois；　belong　to　the　uppermost　Tertiary　series；　the　Pliocene；　has　recently　been　fixed　at　a　later　date　（the　older　Diluvium）；　the　MORPHOLOGICAL　VALUE　of　these　interesting　remains；　that　is；　the　intermediate　position　of　Pithecanthropus；　still　holds　good。　　Volz　says　with　justice　（〃Das　geologische　Alter　der　Pithecanthropus…Schichten　bei　Trinil；　Ost…Java〃。　〃Neues　Jahrb。　f。Mineralogie〃。　　Festband；　1907。）；　that　even　if　Pithecanthropus　is　not　THE　missing　link；　it　is　undoubtedly　_A_　missing　link。

As　on　the　one　hand　there　has　been　found　in　Pithecanthropus　a　form　which；　though　intermediate　between　apes　and　man；　is　nevertheless　more　closely　allied　to　the　apes；　so　on　the　other　hand；　much　progress　has　been　made　since　Darwin's　day　in　the　discovery　and　description　of　the　older　human　remains。　　Since　the　famous　roof　of　a　skull　and　the　bones　of　the　extremities　belonging　to　it　were　found　in　1856　in　the　Neandertal　near　Dusseldorf；　the　most　varied　judgments　have　been　expressed　in　regard　to　the　significance　of　the　remains　and　of　the　skull　in　particular。　　In　Darwin's　〃Descent　of　Man〃　there　is　only　a　passing　allusion　to　them　（〃Descent　of　Man〃；　page　82。）　in　connection　with　the　discussion　of　the　skull…capacity；　although　the　investigations　of　Schaaffhausen；　King；　and　Huxley　were　then　known。　　I　believe　I　have　shown；　in　a　series　of　papers；　that　the　skull　in　question　belongs　to　a　form　different　from　any　of　the　races　of　man　now　living；　and；　with　King　and　Cope；　I　regard　it　as　at　least　a　different　species　from　living　man；　and　have　therefore　designated　it　Homo　primigenius。　　The　form　unquestionably　belongs　to　the　older　Diluvium；　and　in　the　later　Diluvium　human　forms　already　appear；　which　agree　in　all　essential　points　with　existing　human　races。

As　far　back　as　1886　the　value　of　the　Neandertal　skull　was　greatly　enhanced　by　Fraipont's　discovery　of　two　skulls　and　skeletons　from　Spy　in　Belgium。　　These　are　excellently　described　by　their　discoverer　（〃La　race　humaine　de　Neanderthal　ou　de　Canstatt　en　Belgique〃。　　〃Arch。　de　Biologie〃；　VII。　1887。）；　and　are　regarded　as　belonging　to　the　same　group　of　forms　as　the　Neandertal　remains。　　In　1899　and　the　following　years　came　the　discovery　by　Gorjanovic…　Kramberger　of　different　skeletal　parts　of　at　least　ten　individuals　in　a　cave　near　Krapina　in　Croatia。　　（Gorjanovic…Kramberger　〃Der　diluviale　Mensch　von　Krapina　in　Kroatien〃；　1906。）　　It　is　in　particular　the　form　of　the　lower　jaw　which　is　different　from　that　of　all　recent　races　of　man；　and　which　clearly　indicates　the　lowly　position　of　Homo　primigenius；　while；　on　the　other　hand；　the　long…known　skull　from　Gibraltar；　which　I　（〃Studien　zur　Vorgeschichte　des　Menschen〃；　1906；　pages　154　ff。）　have　referred　to　Homo　primigenius；　and　which　has　lately　been　examined　in　detail　by　Sollas　（〃On　the　cranial　and　facial　characters　of　the　Neandertal　Race〃。　　〃Trans。　R。　Soc。〃　London；　vol。　199；　1908；　page　281。）；　has　made　us　acquainted　with　the　surprising　shape　of　the　eye…orbit；　of　the　nose；　and　of　the　whole　upper　part　of　the　face。　　Isolated　lower　jaws　found　at　La　Naulette　in　Belgium；　and　at　Malarnaud　in　France；　increase　our　material　which　is　now　as　abundant　as　could　be　desired。　　The　most　recent　discovery　of　all　is　that　of　a　skull　dug　up　in　August　of　this　year　（1908）　by　Klaatsch　and　Hauser　in　the　lower　grotto　of　the　Le　Moustier　in　Southern　France；　but　this　skull　has　not　yet　been　fully　described。　　Thus　Homo　primigenius　must　also　be　regarded　as　occupying　a　position　in　the　gap　existing　between　the　highest　apes　and　the　lowest　human　races；　Pithecanthropus；　standing　in　the　lower　part　of　it；　and　Homo　primigenius　in　the　higher；　near　man。　　In　order　to　prevent　misunderstanding；　I　should　like　here　to　emphasise　that　in　arranging　this　structural　series　anthropoid　apes；　Pithecanthropus；　Homo　primigenius；　Homo　sapiensI　have　no　intention　of　establishing　it　as　a　direct　genealogical　series。　　I　shall　have　something　to　say　in　regard　to　the　genetic　relations　of　these　forms；　one　to　another；　when　discussing　the　different　theories　of　descent　current　at　the　present　day。　　（（Since　this　essay　was　written　Schoetensack　has　discovered　near　Heidelberg　and　briefly　described　an　exceedingly　interesting　lower　jaw　from　rocks　between　the　Pliocene　and　Diluvial　beds。　　This　exhibits　interesting　differences　from　the　forms　of　lower　jaw　of　Homo　primigenius。　　（Schoetensack　〃Der　Unterkiefer　des　Homo　heidelbergensis〃。　　Leipzig；　1908。）　　G。S。））

In　quite　a　different　domain　from　that　of　morphological　relationship；　namely　in　the　physiological　study　of　the　blood；　results　have　recently　been　gained　which　are　of　the　highest　importance　to　the　doctrine　of　descent。　　Uhlenhuth；　Nuttall；　and　others　have　established　the　fact　that　the　blood…serum　of　a　rabbit　which　has　previously　had　human　blood　injected　into　it；　forms　a　precipitate　with　human　blood。　　This　biological　reaction　was　tried　with　a　great　variety　of　mammalian　species；　and　it　was　found　that　those　far　removed　from　man　gave　no　precipitate　under　these　conditions。　　But　as　in　other　cases　among　mammals　all　nearly　related　forms　yield　an　almost　equally　marked　precipitate；　so　the　serum　of　a　rabbit　treated　with　human　blood　and　then　added　to　the　blood　of　an　anthropoid　ape　gives　ALMOST　as　marked　a　precipitate　as　in　human　blood；　the　reaction　to　the　blood　of　the　lower　Eastern　monkeys　is　weaker；　that　to　the　Western　monkeys　weaker　still；　indeed　in　this　last　case　there　is　only　a　slight　clouding　after　a　considerable　time　and　no　actual　precipitate。　　The　blood　of　the　Lemuridae　（Nuttall）　gives　no　reaction　or　an　extremely　weak　one；　that　of　the　other　mammals　none　whatever。　We　have　in　this　not　only　a　proof　of　the　literal　blood…relationship　between　man　and　apes；　but　the　degree　of　relationship　with　the　different　main　groups　of　apes　can　be　determined　beyond　possibility　of　mistake。

Finally；　it　must　be　briefly　mentioned　that　in　regard　to　remains　of　human　handicraft　also；　the　material　at　our　disposal　has　greatly　increased　of　late　years；　that；　as　a　result　of　this；　the　opinions　of　archaeologists　have　undergone　many　changes；　and　that；　in　particular；　their　views　in　regard　to　the　age　of　the　human　race　have　been　greatly　influenced。　　There　is　a　tendency　at　the　present　time　to　refer　the　origin　of　man　back　to　Tertiary　times。　　It　is　true　that　no　remains　of　Tertiary　man　have　been　found；　but　flints　have　been　discovered　which；　according　to　the　opinion　of　most　investigators；　bear　traces　either　of　use；　or　of　very　primitive　workmanship。　Since　Rutot's　time；　following　Mortillet's　example；　investigators　have　called　these　〃eoliths；〃　and　they　have　been　traced　back　by　Verworn　to　the　Miocene　of　the　Auvergne；　and　by　Rutot　even　to　the　upper　Oligocene。　　Although　these　eoliths　are　even　nowadays　the　subject　of　many　different　views；　the　preoccupation　with　them　has　kept　the　problem　of　the　age　of　the　human　race　continually　before　us。

Geology；　too；　has　made　great　progress　since　the　days　of　Darwin　and　Lyell；　and　has　endeavoured　with　satisfactory　results　to　arrange　the　human　remains　of　the　Diluvial　period　in　chronological　order　（Penck）。　　I　do　not　intend　to　enter　upon　the　question　of　the　primitive　home　of　the　human　race；　since　the　space　at　my　disposal　will　not　allow　of　my　touching　even　very　briefly　upon　all　the　departments　of　science　which　are　concerned　in　the　problem　of　the　descent　of　man。　　How　Darwin　would　have　rejoiced　over　each　of　the　discoveries　here　briefly　outlined！　　What　use　he　would　have　made　of　the　new　and　precious　material；　which　would　have　prevented　the