darwin and modern science-第42章
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ame the progenitors of mankind。 （A。 de Herrera； 〃General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America〃； translated into English by Capt。 J。 Stevens （London； 1725； 1726）； III。 254； Brasseur de Bourbourg； 〃Histoire des Nations Civilisees du Mexique et de l'Amerique… Centrale〃 （Paris； 18571859）； III。 80 sq； compare id。 I。 54 sq。）
According to a legend of the Peruvian Indians； which was told to a Spanish priest in Cuzco about half a century after the conquest； it was in Tiahuanaco that man was first created； or at least was created afresh after the deluge。 〃There （in Tiahuanaco）；〃 so runs the legend； 〃the Creator began to raise up the people and nations that are in that region； making one of each nation of clay； and painting the dresses that each one was to wear； those that were to wear their hair； with hair； and those that were to be shorn； with hair cut。 And to each nation was given the language； that was to be spoken； and the songs to be sung； and the seeds and food that they were to sow。 When the Creator had finished painting and making the said nations and figures of clay； he gave life and soul to each one； as well men as women； and ordered that they should pass under the earth。 Thence each nation came up in the places to which he ordered them to go。〃 （E。J。 Payne； 〃History of the New World called America〃； I。 （Oxford； 1892）； page 462。）
These examples suffice to prove that the theory of the creation of man out of dust or clay has been current among savages in many parts of the world。 But it is by no means the only explanation which the savage philosopher has given of the beginnings of human life on earth。 Struck by the resemblances which may be traced between himself and the beasts； he has often supposed； like Darwin himself； that mankind has been developed out of lower forms of animal life。 For the simple savage has none of that high notion of the transcendant dignity of man which makes so many superior persons shrink with horror from the suggestion that they are distant cousins of the brutes。 He on the contrary is not too proud to own his humble relations； indeed his difficulty often is to perceive the distinction between him and them。 Questioned by a missionary； a Bushman of more than average intelligence 〃could not state any difference between a man and a brutehe did not know but a buffalo might shoot with bows and arrows as well as man； if it had them。〃 （Reverend John Campbell； 〃Travels in South Africa〃 （London； 1822； II。 page 34。） When the Russians first landed on one of the Alaskan islands； the natives took them for cuttle…fish 〃on account of the buttons on their clothes。〃 （I。 Petroff； 〃Report on the Population； Industries； and Resources of Alaska〃； page 145。） The Giliaks of the Amoor think that the outward form and size of an animal are only apparent； in substance every beast is a real man； just like a Giliak himself； only endowed with an intelligence and strength； which often surpass those of mere ordinary human beings。 （L。 Sternberg； 〃Die Religion der Giljaken〃； 〃Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft〃； VIII。 （1905）； page 248。） The Borororos； an Indian tribe of Brazil； will have it that they are parrots of a gorgeous red plumage which live in their native forests。 Accordingly they treat the birds as their fellow…tribesmen； keeping them in captivity； refusing to eat their flesh； and mourning for them when they die。 （K。 von den Steinen； 〃Unter den Naturvolkern Zentral…Brasiliens〃 （Berlin； 1894）； pages 352 sq。； 512。）
This sense of the close relationship of man to the lower creation is the essence of totemism； that curious system of superstition which unites by a mystic bond a group of human kinsfolk to a species of animals or plants。 Where that system exists in full force； the members of a totem clan identify themselves with their totem animals in a way and to an extent which we find it hard even to imagine。 For example； men of the Cassowary clan in Mabuiag think that cassowaries are men or nearly so。 〃Cassowary； he all same as relation； he belong same family；〃 is the account they give of their relationship with the long…legged bird。 Conversely they hold that they themselves are cassowaries for all practical purposes。 They pride themselves on having long thin legs like a cassowary。 This reflection affords them peculiar satisfaction when they go out to fight； or to run away； as the case may be； for at such times a Cassowary man will say to himself； 〃My leg is long and thin； I can run and not feel tired； my legs will go quickly and the grass will not entangle them。〃 Members of the Cassowary clan are reputed to be pugnacious； because the cassowary is a bird of very uncertain temper and can kick with extreme violence。 （A。C。 Haddon； 〃The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits〃； 〃Journal of the Anthropological Institute〃； XIX。 （1890）； page 393； 〃Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits〃； V。 （Cambridge； 1904）； pages 166； 184。） So among the Ojibways men of the Bear clan are reputed to be surly and pugnacious like bears； and men of the Crane clan to have clear ringing voices like cranes。 （W。W。 Warren； 〃History of the Ojibways〃； 〃Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society〃； V。 （Saint Paul； Minn。 1885）； pages 47； 49。） Hence the savage will often speak of his totem animal as his father or his brother； and will neither kill it himself nor allow others to do so； if he can help it。 For example； if somebody were to kill a bird in the presence of a native Australian who had the bird for his totem； the black might say； 〃What for you kill that fellow？ that my father！〃 or 〃That brother belonging to me you have killed； why did you do it？〃 （E。 Palmer； 〃Notes on some Australian Tribes〃； 〃Journal of the Anthropological Institute〃； XIII。 （1884）； page 300。） Bechuanas of the Porcupine clan are greatly afflicted if anybody hurts or kills a porcupine in their presence。 They say； 〃They have killed our brother； our master； one of ourselves； him whom we sing of〃； and so saying they piously gather the quills of their murdered brother； spit on them； and rub their eyebrows with them。 They think they would die if they touched its flesh。 In like manner Bechuanas of the Crocodile clan call the crocodile one of themselves； their master； their brother； and they mark the ears of their cattle with a long slit like a crocodile's mouth by way of a family crest。 Similarly Bechuanas of the Lion clan would not； like the members of other clans； partake of lion's flesh； for how； say they； could they eat their grandfather？ If they are forced in self…defence to kill a lion； they do so with great regret and rub their eyes carefully with its skin； fearing to lose their sight if they neglected this precaution。 （T。 Arbousset et F。 Daumas； 〃Relation d'un Voyage d'Exploration au Nord…Est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne…Esperance〃 （Paris； 1842）； pages 349 sq。； 422…24。） A Mandingo porter has been known to offer the whole of his month's pay to save the life of a python； because the python was his totem and he therefore regarded the reptile as his relation； he thought that if he allowed the creature to be killed； the whole of his own family would perish； probably through the vengeance to be taken by the reptile kinsfolk of the murdered serpent。 （M。 le Docteur Tautain； 〃Notes sur les Croyances et Pratiques Religieuses des Banmanas〃； 〃Revue d'Ethnographie〃； III。 （1885）； pages 396 sq。； A。 Rancon； 〃Dans la Haute…Gambie； Voyage d'Exploration Scientifique〃 （Paris； 1894）； page 445。）
Sometimes； indeed； the savage goes further and identifies the revered animal not merely with a kinsman but with himself； he imagines that one of his own more or less numerous souls； or at all events that a vital part of himself； is in the beast； so that if it is killed he must die。 Thus； the Balong tribe of the Cameroons； in West Africa； think that every man has several souls； of which one is lodged in an elephant； a wild boar； a leopard； or what not。 When any one comes home； feels ill； and says； 〃I shall soon die；〃 and is as good as his word； his friends are of opinion that one of his souls has been shot by a hunter in a wild boar or a leopard； for example； and that that is the real cause of his death。 （J。 Keller； 〃Ueber das Land und Volk der Balong〃； 〃Deutsches Kolonialblatt〃； 1 October； 1895； page 484。） A Catholic missionary； sleeping in the hut of a chief of the Fan negroes； awoke in the middle of the night to see a huge black serpent of the most dangerous sort in the act of darting at him。 He was about to shoot it when the chief stopped him； saying； 〃In killing that serpent； it is me that you would have killed。 Fear nothing； the serpent is my elangela。〃 （Father Trilles； 〃Chez les Fang； leurs Moeurs； leur Langue； leur Religion〃； 〃Les Missions Catholiques〃； XXX。 （1898）； page 322。） At Calabar there used to be some years ago a huge old crocodile which was well known to contain the spirit of a chief who resided in the flesh at Duke Town。 Sporting Vice…Consuls； with a reckless disregard of human life； from time to time made determined attempts to injure the animal； and once a peculiarly active officer succeeded in hitting it。 The chief was immediately laid up with a wound in his leg。 He SAID that a dog had bitten him； but few people perhaps were deceived by so flimsy a pretext。 （Miss Mary H。 Kingsley； 〃Travels in West Africa〃 （London； 1897）； pages 538 sq。 As to the external or bush souls of human beings； which in this part of Africa are supposed to be lodged in the bodies of animals； see Miss Mary H。 Kingsley op。 cit。 pages 459…461； R。 Henshaw； 〃Notes on the Efik belief in 'bush soul'〃； 〃Man〃； VI。（1906）； pages 121 sq。； J。 Parkinson； 〃Notes on the Asaba people （Ibos） of the Niger〃； 〃Journal of the Anthropological Institute〃； XXXVI。 （1906）； pages 314 sq。） Once when Mr Partridge's canoe… men were about to catch fish near an Assiga town in Southern Nigeria； the natives of the town objected； saying； 〃Our souls live in those fish； and if you kill them we shall die。〃 （Charles Partridge； 〃Cross River Natives〃 （London； 1905）； pages 225 sq。） On another occasion； in the same region； an Englishman shot a hippopotamus near a native village。 The same night a woman died in the village； and her friends demanded and obtained from the marksman five pounds as compensation for the murder of the woman； whose soul or second self had been in that hippopotamus。 （C。H。 Robinson； 〃Hausaland〃 （London； 1896）； pages 36 sq。） Similarly at Ndolo； in the Congo region； we hear of a chief whose life was bound up with a hippopotamus； but he prudently suffered no one to fire at the animal。 （〃Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du Musee du Congo〃； I。 （Brussels； 1902… 06）； page 150。
Amongst people who thus fail to perceive any sharp line of distinction between beasts and men it is not surprising to meet with the belief that human beings are directly descended from animals。 Such a belief is often found among totemic tribes who imagine that their ancestors sprang from their totemic animals or plants； but it is by no means confined to them。 Thus； to take instances； some of the Californian Indians； in whose mythology the coyote or prairie…wolf is a leading personage； think that they are descended from coyotes。 At first they walked o
