darwin and modern science-第44章
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the water； but not without leaving behind her a beautiful daughter； who became afterwards the mother of the race。〃 （The Lord Bishop of Labuan； 〃On the Wild Tribes of the North…West Coast of Borneo〃； 〃Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London〃； New Series II。 （London； 1863）； pages 26 sq。 Such stories conform to a well…known type which may be called the Swan…Maiden type of story； or Beauty and the Beast； or Cupid and Psyche。 The occurrence of stories of this type among totemic peoples； such as the Tshi…speaking negroes of the Gold Coast； who tell them to explain their totemic taboos； suggests that all such tales may have originated in totemism。 I shall deal with this question elsewhere。）
Members of a clan in Mandailing； on the west coast of Sumatra； assert that they are descended from a tiger； and at the present day； when a tiger is shot； the women of the clan are bound to offer betel to the dead beast。 When members of this clan come upon the tracks of a tiger； they must； as a mark of homage； enclose them with three little sticks。 Further； it is believed that the tiger will not attack or lacerate his kinsmen； the members of the clan。 （H。 Ris； 〃De Onderafdeeling Klein Mandailing Oeloe en Pahantan en hare Bevolking met uitzondering van de Oeloes〃； 〃Bijdragen tot de Tall… Land… en Volkenkunde van Nederlansch…Indie； XLVI。 （1896）； page 473。） The Battas of Central Sumatra are divided into a number of clans which have for their totems white buffaloes； goats； wild turtle…doves； dogs； cats； apes； tigers； and so forth； and one of the explanations which they give of their totems is that these creatures were their ancestors； and that their own souls after death can transmigrate into the animals。 （J。B。 Neumann； 〃Het Pane en Bila…stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra〃； 〃Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap〃； Tweede Serie； III。 Afdeeling； Meer uitgebreide Artikelen； No。 2 （Amsterdam； 1886）； pages 311 sq。； id。 ib。 Tweede Serie； IV。 Afdeeling； Meer uitgebreide Artikelen； No。 1 （Amsterdam； 1887）； pages 8 sq。） In Amboyna and the neighbouring islands the inhabitants of some villages aver that they are descended from trees； such as the Capellenia moluccana； which had been fertilised by the Pandion Haliaetus。 Others claim to be sprung from pigs； octopuses； crocodiles； sharks； and eels。 People will not burn the wood of the trees from which they trace their descent； nor eat the flesh of the animals which they regard as their ancestors。 Sicknesses of all sorts are believed to result from disregarding these taboos。 （J。G。F。 Riedel； 〃De sluik… en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua〃 （The Hague； 1886）； pages 32； 61； G。W。W。C。 Baron van Hoevell； 〃Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers〃 （Dordrecht； 1875）； page 152。） Similarly in Ceram persons who think they are descended from crocodiles； serpents； iguanas； and sharks will not eat the flesh of these animals。 （J。G。F。 Riedel op。 cit。 page 122。） Many other peoples of the Molucca Islands entertain similar beliefs and observe similar taboos。 （J。G。F。 Riedel 〃De sluik… en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua〃 （The Hague； 1886）； pages 253； 334； 341； 348； 412； 414； 432。） Again； in Ponape； one of the Caroline Islands； 〃The different families suppose themselves to stand in a certain relation to animals； and especially to fishes； and believe in their descent from them。 They actually name these animals 'mothers'； the creatures are sacred to the family and may not be injured。 Great dances； accompanied with the offering of prayers； are performed in their honour。 Any person who killed such an animal would expose himself to contempt and punishment； certainly also to the vengeance of the insulted deity。〃 Blindness is commonly supposed to be the consequence of such a sacrilege。 （Dr Hahl； 〃Mittheilungen uber Sitten und rechtliche Verhaltnisse auf Ponape〃； 〃Ethnologisches Notizblatt〃； Vol。 II。 Heft 2 （Berlin； 1901）； page 10。）
Some of the aborigines of Western Australia believe that their ancestors were swans； ducks； or various other species of water…fowl before they were transformed into men。 （Captain G。 Grey； 〃A Vocabulary of the Dialects of South Western Australia〃； Second Edition （London； 1840）； pages 29； 37； 61； 63； 66； 71。） The Dieri tribe of Central Australia； who are divided into totemic clans； explain their origin by the following legend。 They say that in the beginning the earth opened in the midst of Perigundi Lake； and the totems （murdus or madas） came trooping out one after the other。 Out came the crow； and the shell parakeet； and the emu； and all the rest。 Being as yet imperfectly formed and without members or organs of sense； they laid themselves down on the sandhills which surrounded the lake then just as they do now。 It was a bright day and the totems lay basking in the sunshine； till at last； refreshed and invigorated by it； they stood up as human beings and dispersed in all directions。 That is why people of the same totem are now scattered all over the country。 You may still see the island in the lake out of which the totems came trooping long ago。 （A。W。 Howitt； 〃Native Tribes of South…East Australia〃 （London； 1904）； pages 476； 779 sq。） Another Dieri legend relates how Paralina； one of the Mura…Muras or mythical predecessors of the Dieri； perfected mankind。 He was out hunting kangaroos； when he saw four incomplete beings cowering together。 So he went up to them； smoothed their bodies； stretched out their limbs； slit up their fingers and toes； formed their mouths； noses； and eyes； stuck ears on them； and blew into their ears in order that they might hear。 Having perfected their organs and so produced mankind out of these rudimentary beings； he went about making men everywhere。 （A。W。 Howitt op。 cit。； pages 476； 780 sq。） Yet another Dieri tradition sets forth how the Mura…Mura produced the race of man out of a species of small black lizards； which may still be met with under dry bark。 To do this he divided the feet of the lizards into fingers and toes； and； applying his forefinger to the middle of their faces； created a nose； likewise he gave them human eyes； mouths and ears。 He next set one of them upright； but it fell down again because of its tail； so he cut off its tail and the lizard then walked on its hind legs。 That is the origin of mankind。 （S。 Gason； 〃The Manners and Customs of the Dieyerie tribe of Australian Aborigines〃； 〃Native Tribes of South Australia〃 （Adelaide； 1879）； page 260。 This writer fell into the mistake of regarding the Mura…Mura （Mooramoora） as a Good…Spirit instead of as one of the mythical but more or less human predecessors of the Dieri in the country。 See A。W。 Howitt； 〃Native Tribes of South…East Australia〃； pages 475 sqq。）
The Arunta tribe of Central Australia similarly tell how in the beginning mankind was developed out of various rudimentary forms of animal life。 They say that in those days two beings called Ungambikula； that is； 〃out of nothing；〃 or 〃self…existing；〃 dwelt in the western sky。 From their lofty abode they could see； far away to the east； a number of inapertwa creatures； that is； rudimentary human beings or incomplete men； whom it was their mission to make into real men and women。 For at that time there were no real men and women； the rudimentary creatures （inapertwa） were of various shapes and dwelt in groups along the shore of the salt water which covered the country。 These embryos； as we may call them； had no distinct limbs or organs of sight； hearing； and smell； they did not eat food； and they presented the appearance of human beings all doubled up into a rounded mass； in which only the outline of the different parts of the body could be vaguely perceived。 Coming down from their home in the western sky； armed with great stone knives； the Ungambikula took hold of the embryos； one after the other。 First of all they released the arms from the bodies； then making four clefts at the end of each arm they fashioned hands and fingers； afterwards legs； feet； and toes were added in the same way。 The figure could now stand； a nose was then moulded and the nostrils bored with the fingers。 A cut with the knife made the mouth； which was pulled open several times to render it flexible。 A slit on each side of the face separated the upper and lower eye…lids； disclosing the eyes； which already existed behind them； and a few strokes more completed the body。 Thus out of the rudimentary creatures were formed men and women。 These rudimentary creatures or embryos； we are told； 〃were in reality stages in the transformation of various animals and plants into human beings； and thus they were naturally； when made into human beings； intimately associated with the particular animal or plant； as the case may be； of which they were the transformationsin other words； each individual of necessity belonged to a totem； the name of which was of course that of the animal or plant of which he or she was a transformation。〃 However； it is not said that all the totemic clans of the Arunta were thus developed； no such tradition； for example； is told to explain the origin of the important Witchetty Grub clan。 The clans which are positively known； or at least said； to have originated out of embryos in the way described are the Plum Tree； the Grass Seed； the Large Lizard； the Small Lizard； the Alexandra Parakeet； and the Small Rat clans。 When the Ungambikula had thus fashioned people of these totems； they circumcised them all； except the Plum Tree men； by means of a fire…stick。 After that； having done the work of creation or evolution； the Ungambikula turned themselves into little lizards which bear a name meaning 〃snappers…up of flies。〃 （Baldwin Spencer and F。J。 Gillen； 〃Native Tribes of Central Australia （London； 1899）； pages 388 sq。； compare id。； 〃Northern Tribes of Central Australia〃 （London； 1904）； page 150。）
This Arunta tradition of the origin of man； as Messrs Spencer and Gillen； who have recorded it； justly observe； 〃is of considerable interest； it is in the first place evidently a crude attempt to describe the origin of human beings out of non…human creatures who were of various forms； some of them were representatives of animals； others of plants； but in all cases they are to be regarded as intermediate stages in the transition of an animal or plant ancestor into a human individual who bore its name as that of his or her totem。〃 （Baldwin Spencer and F。J。 Gillen； 〃Native Tribes of Central Australia〃； pages 391 sq。） In a sense these speculations of the Arunta on their own origin may be said to combine the theory of creation with the theory of evolution； for while they represent men as developed out of much simpler forms of life； they at the same time assume that this development was effected by the agency of two powerful beings； whom so far we may call creators。 It is well known that at a far higher stage of culture a crude form of the evolutionary hypothesis was propounded by the Greek philosopher Empedocles。 He imagined that shapeless lumps of earth and water； thrown up by the subterranean fires； developed into monstrous animals； bulls with the heads of men； men with the heads of bulls； and so forth； till at last； these hybrid forms being gradually eliminated； the various existing species of animals
