the origin of species(物种起源)-第48章

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of　the　known　geological　formations　of　Europe；　which　have　oftenest　given　rise；　first　to　local　varieties　and　ultimately　to　new　species；　and　this　again　would　greatly　lessen　the　chance　of　our　being　able　to　trace　the　stages　of　transition　in　any　one　geological　formation。　
It　should　not　be　forgotten；　that　at　the　present　day；　with　perfect　specimens　for　examination；　two　forms　can　seldom　be　connected　by　intermediate　varieties　and　thus　proved　to　be　the　same　species；　until　many　specimens　have　been　collected　from　many　places；　and　in　the　case　of　fossil　species　this　could　rarely　be　effected　by　palaeontologists。　We　shall；　perhaps；　best　perceive　the　improbability　of　our　being　enabled　to　connect　species　by　numerous；　fine；　intermediate；　fossil　links；　by　asking　ourselves　whether；　for　instance；　geologists　at　some　future　period　will　be　able　to　prove；　that　our　different　breeds　of　cattle；　sheep；　horses；　and　dogs　have　descended　from　a　single　stock　or　from　several　aboriginal　stocks；　or；　again；　whether　certain　sea…shells　inhabiting　the　shores　of　North　America；　which　are　ranked　by　some　conchologists　as　distinct　species　from　their　European　representatives；　and　by　other　conchologists　as　only　varieties；　are　really　varieties　or　are；　as　it　is　called；　specifically　distinct。　This　could　be　effected　only　by　the　future　geologist　discovering　in　a　fossil　state　numerous　intermediate　gradations；　and　such　success　seems　to　me　improbable　in　the　highest　degree。　
Geological　research；　though　it　has　added　numerous　species　to　existing　and　extinct　genera；　and　has　made　the　intervals　between　some　few　groups　less　wide　than　they　otherwise　would　have　been；　yet　has　done　scarcely　anything　in　breaking　down　the　distinction　between　species；　by　connecting　them　together　by　numerous；　fine；　intermediate　varieties；　and　this　not　having　been　effected；　is　probably　the　gravest　and　most　obvious　of　all　the　many　objections　which　may　be　urged　against　my　views。　Hence　it　will　be　worth　while　to　sum　up　the　foregoing　remarks；　under　an　imaginary　illustration。　The　Malay　Archipelago　is　of　about　the　size　of　Europe　from　the　North　Cape　to　the　Mediterranean；　and　from　Britain　to　Russia；　and　therefore　equals　all　the　geological　formations　which　have　been　examined　with　any　accuracy；　excepting　those　of　the　United　States　of　America。　I　fully　agree　with　Mr　Godwin…Austen；　that　the　present　condition　of　the　Malay　Archipelago；　with　its　numerous　large　islands　separated　by　wide　and　shallow　seas；　probably　represents　the　former　state　of　Europe；　when　most　of　our　formations　were　accumulating。　The　Malay　Archipelago　is　one　of　the　richest　regions　of　the　whole　world　in　organic　beings；　yet　if　all　the　species　were　to　be　collected　which　have　ever　lived　there；　how　imperfectly　would　they　represent　the　natural　history　of　the　world！　
But　we　have　every　reason　to　believe　that　the　terrestrial　productions　of　the　archipelago　would　be　preserved　in　an　excessively　imperfect　manner　in　the　formations　which　we　suppose　to　be　there　accumulating。　I　suspect　that　not　many　of　the　strictly　littoral　animals；　or　of　those　which　lived　on　naked　submarine　rocks；　would　be　embedded；　and　those　embedded　in　gravel　or　sand；　would　not　endure　to　a　distant　epoch。　Wherever　sediment　did　not　accumulate　on　the　bed　of　the　sea；　or　where　it　did　not　accumulate　at　a　sufficient　rate　to　protect　organic　bodies　from　decay；　no　remains　could　be　preserved。　
In　our　archipelago；　I　believe　that　fossiliferous　formations　could　be　formed　of　sufficient　thickness　to　last　to　an　age；　as　distant　in　futurity　as　the　secondary　formations　lie　in　the　past；　only　during　periods　of　subsidence。　These　periods　of　subsidence　would　be　separated　from　each　other　by　enormous　intervals；　during　which　the　area　would　be　either　stationary　or　rising；　whilst　rising；　each　fossiliferous　formation　would　be　destroyed；　almost　as　soon　as　accumulated；　by　the　incessant　coast…action；　as　we　now　see　on　the　shores　of　South　America。　During　the　periods　of　subsidence　there　would　probably　be　much　extinction　of　life；　during　the　periods　of　elevation；　there　would　be　much　variation；　but　the　geological　record　would　then　be　least　perfect。　
It　may　be　doubted　whether　the　duration　of　any　one　great　period　of　subsidence　over　the　whole　or　part　of　the　archipelago；　together　with　a　contemporaneous　accumulation　of　sediment；　would　exceed　the　average　duration　of　the　same　specific　forms；　and　these　contingencies　are　indispensable　for　the　preservation　of　all　the　transitional　gradations　between　any　two　or　more　species。　If　such　gradations　were　not　fully　preserved；　transitional　varieties　would　merely　appear　as　so　many　distinct　species。　It　is；　also；　probable　that　each　great　period　of　subsidence　would　be　interrupted　by　oscillations　of　level；　and　that　slight　climatal　changes　would　intervene　during　such　lengthy　periods；　and　in　these　cases　the　inhabitants　of　the　archipelago　would　have　to　migrate；　and　no　closely　consecutive　record　of　their　modifications　could　be　preserved　in　any　one　formation。　
Very　many　of　the　marine　inhabitants　of　the　archipelago　now　range　thousands　of　miles　beyond　its　confines；　and　analogy　leads　me　to　believe　that　it　would　be　chiefly　these　far…ranging　species　which　would　oftenest　produce　new　varieties；　and　the　varieties　would　at　first　generally　be　local　or　confined　to　one　place；　but　if　possessed　of　any　decided　advantage；　or　when　further　modified　and　improved；　they　would　slowly　spread　and　supplant　their　parent…forms。　When　such　varieties　returned　to　their　ancient　homes；　as　they　would　differ　from　their　former　state；　in　a　nearly　uniform；　though　perhaps　extremely　slight　degree；　they　would；　according　to　the　principles　followed　by　many　palaeontologists；　be　ranked　as　new　and　distinct　species。　
If　then；　there　be　some　degree　of　truth　in　these　remarks；　we　have　no　right　to　expect　to　find　in　our　geological　formations；　an　infinite　number　of　those　fine　transitional　forms；　which　on　my　theory　assuredly　have　connected　all　the　past　and　present　species　of　the　same　group　into　one　long　and　branching　chain　of　life。　We　ought　only　to　look　for　a　few　links；　some　more　closely；　some　more　distantly　related　to　each　other；　and　these　links；　let　them　be　ever　so　close；　if　found　in　different　stages　of　the　same　formation；　would；　by　most　palaeontologists；　be　ranked　as　distinct　species。　But　I　do　not　pretend　that　I　should　ever　have　suspected　how　poor　a　record　of　the　mutations　of　life；　the　best　preserved　geological　section　presented；　had　not　the　difficulty　of　our　not　discovering　innumerable　transitional　links　between　the　species　which　appeared　at　the　commencement　and　close　of　each　formation；　pressed　so　hardly　on　my　theory。　
On　the　sudden　appearance　of　whole　groups　of　Allied　Species。　The　abrupt　manner　in　which　whole　groups　of　species　suddenly　appear　in　certain　formations；　has　been　urged　by　several　palaeontologists；　for　instance；　by　Agassiz；　Pictet；　and　by　none　more　forcibly　than　by　Professor　Sedgwick；　as　a　fatal　objection　to　the　belief　in　the　transmutation　of　species。　If　numerous　species；　belonging　to　the　same　genera　or　families；　have　really　started　into　life　all　at　once；　the　fact　would　be　fatal　to　the　theory　of　descent　with　slow　modification　through　natural　selection。　For　the　development　of　a　group　of　forms；　all　of　which　have　descended　from　some　one　progenitor；　must　have　been　an　extremely　slow　process；　and　the　progenitors　must　have　lived　long　ages　before　their　modified　descendants。　But　we　continually　over…rate　the　perfection　of　the　geological　record；　and　falsely　infer；　because　certain　genera　or　families　have　not　been　found　beneath　a　certain　stage；　that　they　did　not　exist　before　that　stage。　We　continually　forget　how　large　the　world　is；　compared　with　the　area　over　which　our　geological　formations　have　been　carefully　examined；　we　forget　that　groups　of　species　may　elsewhere　have　long　existed　and　have　slowly　multiplied　before　they　invaded　the　ancient　archipelagoes　of　Europe　and　of　the　United　States。　We　do　not　make　due　allowance　for　the　enormous　intervals　of　time；　which　have　probably　elapsed　between　our　consecutive　formations；　longer　perhaps　in　some　cases　than　the　time　required　for　the　accumulation　of　each　formation。　These　intervals　will　have　given　time　for　the　multiplication　of　species　from　some　one　or　some　few　parent…forms；　and　in　the　succeeding　formation　such　species　will　appear　as　if　suddenly　created。　
I　may　here　recall　a　remark　formerly　made；　namely　that　it　might　require　a　long　succession　of　ages　to　adapt　an　organism　to　some　new　and　peculiar　line　of　life；　for　instance　to　fly　through　the　air；　but　that　when　this　had　been　effected；　and　a　few　species　had　thus　acquired　a　great　advantage　over　other　organisms；　a　comparatively　short　time　would　be　necessary　to　produce　many　divergent　forms；　which　would　be　able　to　spread　rapidly　and　widely　throughout　the　world。　
I　will　now　give　a　few　examples　to　illustrate　these　remarks；　and　to　show　how　liable　we　are　to　error　in　supposing　that　whole　groups　of　species　have　suddenly　been　produced。　I　may　recall　the　well…known　fact　that　in　geological　treatises；　published　not　many　years　ago；　the　great　class　of　mammals　was　always　spoken　of　as　having　abruptly　come　in　at　the　commencement　of　the　tertiary　series。　And　now　one　of　the　richest　known　accumulations　of　fossil　mammals　belongs　to　the　middle　of　the　secondary　series；　and　one　true　mammal　has　been　discovered　in　the　new　red　sandstone　at　nearly　the　commencement　of　this　great　series。　Cuvier　used　to　urge　that　no　monkey　occurred　in　any　tertiary　stratum；　but　now　extinct　species　have　been　discovered　in　India；　South　America；　and　in　Europe　even　as　far　back　as　the　eocene　stage。　The　most　striking　case；　however；　is　that　of　the　Whale　family；　as　these　animals　have　huge　bones；　are　marine；　and　range　over　the　world；　the　fact　of　not　a　single　bone　of　a　whale　having　been　discovered　in　any　secondary　formation；　seemed　fully　to　justify　the　belief　that　this　great　and　distinct　order　had　been　suddenly　produced　in　the　interval　between　the　latest　secondary　and　earliest　tertiary　formation。　But　now　we　may　read　in　the　Supplement　to　Lyell's　'Manual；'　published　in　1858；　clear　evidence　of　the　existence　of　whales　in　the　upper　greensand；　some　time　before　the　close　of　the　secondary　period。　
I　may　give　another　instance；　which　from　having　passed　under　my　own　eyes　has　much　struck　me。　In　a　memoir　on　Fossil　Sessile　Cirripedes；　I　have　stated　that；　from　the　number　of　existing　and　extinct　tertiary　species；　from　the　extraordinary　abundance　of　the　individuals　of　many　species　all　over　the　world；　from　the　Arctic　regions　to　the　equator；　inhabiting　various　zones　of　depths　from　the　upper　tidal　limits　to　50　fathoms；　from　the　perfect　manner　in　which　specimens　are　preserved　in　the　oldest　tertiary　beds；　from　the　ease　with　which　even　a　fragment　of　a　valve　can　be　recognised；　from　all　these　circumstances；　I　inferred　that　had　sessile　cirripedes　existed　during　the　secondary　periods；　they　would　certainly　have　been　preserved　and　discovered；　and　as　not　one　species　had　been　discovered　in　beds　of　this　age；　I　concluded　that　this　great　group　had　been　suddenly　developed　at　the　commencement　of　the　tertiary　series。　This　was　a　sore　trouble　to　me；　adding　as　I　thought　one　more　instance　of　the　abrupt　appearance　of　a　great　group　of　species。　But　my　work　had　hardly　been　published；　when　a　skilful　palaeontologist；　M。　Bosquet；　sent　me　a　drawing　of　a　perfect　specimen　of　an　unmistakeable　sessile　cirripede；　which