the evolution of modern medicine(现代医药的演变)-第20章
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later。 No such phenomenal change ever was made within so short space of
time as that which thus altered the map of Asia and Europe at this period。
Within a century； the Crescent had swept from Arabia through the Eastern
Empire； over Egypt； North Africa and over Spain in the West； and the fate
of Western Europe hung in the balance before the gates of Tours in 732。
This time the barbaric horde that laid waste a large part of Christendom
were a people that became deeply appreciative of all that was best in
Graeco…Roman civilization and of nothing more than of its sciences。 The
cultivation of medicine was encouraged by the Arabs in a very special way。
Anyone wishing to follow the history of the medical profession among
this remarkable people will find it admirably presented in Lucien Leclerc's
〃Histoire de la medecine arabe〃 （Paris； 1876）。 An excellent account is also
given in Freind's well…known 〃History of Medicine〃 （London； 1725…1726）。
Here I can only indicate very briefly the course of the stream and its
freightage。
With the rise of Christianity； Alexandria became a centre of bitter
theological and political factions； the story of which haunts the memory of
anyone who was so fortunate as to read in his youth Kingsley's 〃Hypatia。〃
These centuries； with their potent influence of neoplatonism on
Christianity； appear to have been sterile enough in medicine。 I have
already referred to the late Greeks； Aetius and Alexander of Tralles。 The
last of the Alexandrians was a remarkable man； Paul of AEgina； a great
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name in medicine and in surgery； who lived in the early part of the seventh
century。 He also； like Oribasius； was a great compiler。 In the year 640； the
Arabs took Alexandria； and for the third time a great library was destroyed
in the 〃first city of the West。〃 Shortly after the conquest of Egypt； Greek
works were translated into Arabic； often through the medium of Syriac；
particularly certain of Galen's books on medicine； and chemical writings；
which appear to have laid the foundation of Arabian knowledge on this
subject。
Through Alexandria then was one source： but the special development
of the Greek science and of medicine took place in the ninth century under
the Eastern Caliphates。 Let me quote here a couple of sentences from
Leclerc （Tome I； pp。 91…92）：
〃The world has but once witnessed so marvellous a spectacle as that
presented by the Arabs in the ninth century。 This pastoral people； whose
fanaticism had suddenly made them masters of half of the world； having
once founded their empire； immediately set themselves to acquire that
knowledge of the sciences which alone was lacking to their greatness。 Of
all the invaders who competed for the last remains of the Roman Empire
they alone pursued such studies； while the Germanic hordes； glorying in
their brutality and ignorance； took a thousand years to re…unite the broken
chain of tradition； the Arabs accomplished this in less than a century。 They
provoked the competition of the conquered Christians a healthy
competition which secured the harmony of the races。
〃At the end of the eighth century； their whole scientific possessions
consisted of a translation of one medical treatise and some books on
alchemy。 Before the ninth century had run to its close； the Arabs were in
possession of all the science of the Greeks； they had produced from their
own ranks students of the first order； and had raised among their initiators
men who； without them； would have been groping in the dark； and they
showed from this time an aptitude for the exact sciences； which was
lacking in their instructors； whom they henceforward surpassed。〃
It was chiefly through the Nestorians that the Arabs became
acquainted with Greek medicine； and there were two famous families of
translators； the Bakhtishuas and the Mesues； both Syrians； and probably
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not very thoroughly versed in either Greek or Arabic。 But the prince of
translators； one of the finest figures of the century； was Honein； a
Christian Arab； born in 809； whose name was Latinized as Joannitius。
〃The marvellous extent of his works； their excellence； their importance；
the trials he bore nobly at the beginning of his career； everything about
him arouses our interest and sympathy。 If he did not actually create the
Oriental renaissance movement； certainly no one played in it a more active；
decided and fruitful part。〃＇10＇ His industry was colossal。 He translated
most of the works of Hippocrates and Galen； Aristotle and many others。
His famous 〃Introduction〃 or 〃Isagoge；〃 a very popular book in the
Middle Ages； is a translation of the 〃Microtegni〃 of Galen； a small hand…
book； of which a translation is appended to Cholmeley's 〃John of
Gaddesden。〃＇11＇ The first printed edition of it appeared in 1475 ＇see
Chapter IV＇ at Padua。
＇10＇ Leclerc： Histoire de la medecine arabe； Tome I； p。 139。
＇11＇ Oxford； Clarendon Press； 1912； pp。 136…166。 The Mesues also did
great work； and translations of their compilations； particularly those of the
younger Mesue； were widely distributed in manuscript and were early
printed （Venice； 1471） and frequently reprinted； even as late as the
seventeenth century。
Leclerc gives the names of more than one hundred known translators
who not only dealt with the physicians but with the Greek philosophers；
mathematicians and astronomers。 The writings of the physicians of India
and of Persia were also translated into Arabic。
But close upon the crowd of translators who introduced the learning of
Greece to the Arabians came original observers of the first rank； to a few
only of whom time will allow me to refer。 Rhazes； so called from the name
of the town （Rai） in which he was born； was educated at the great hospital
at Bagdad in the second half of the ninth century。 With a true Hippocratic
spirit he made many careful observations on disease； and to him we owe
the first accurate account of smallpox； which he differentiated from
measles。 This work was translated for the old Sydenham Society by W。A。
Greenhill （1848）； and the description given of the disease is well worth
reading。 He was a man of strong powers of observation； good sense and
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excellent judgment。 His works were very popular； particularly the gigantic
〃Continens；〃 one of the bulkiest of incunabula。 The Brescia edition； 1486；
a magnificent volume； extends over 588 pages and it must weigh more
than seventeen pounds。 It is an encyclopaedia filled with extracts from the
Greek and other writers； interspersed with memoranda of his own
experiences。 His 〃Almansor〃 was a very popular text…book； and one of the
first to be printed。 Book IX of 〃Almansor〃 （the name of the prince to
whom it was addressed） with the title 〃De aegritudinibus a capite usque ad
pedes；〃 was a very favorite mediaeval text…book。 On account of his zeal
for study Rhazes was known as the 〃Experimentator。〃
The first of the Arabians； known throughout the Middle Ages as the
Prince； the rival； indeed； of Galen； was the Persian Ibn Sina； better known
as Avicenna； one of the greatest names in the history of medicine。 Born
about 980 A。 D。 in the province of Khorasan； near Bokhara； he has left a
brief autobiography from which we learn something of his early years。 He
could repeat the Koran by heart when ten years old； and at twelve he had
disputed in law and in logic。 So that he found medicine was an easy
subject； not hard and thorny like mathematics and metaphysics！ He
worked night and day； and could solve problems in his dreams。 〃When I
found a difficulty；〃 he says； 〃I referred to my notes and prayed to the
Creator。 At night； when weak or sleepy； I strengthened myself with a glass
of wine。〃＇12＇ He was a voluminous writer to whom scores of books are
attributed； and he is the author of the most famous medical text…book ever
written。 It is safe to say that the 〃Canon〃 was a medical bible for a longer
period than any other work。 It 〃stands for the epitome of all precedent
development； the final codification of all Graeco…Arabic medicine。 It is a
hierarchy of laws liberally illustrated by facts which so ingeniously rule
and are subject to one another； stay and uphold one another； that
admiration is compelled for the sagacity of the great organiser who； with
unparalleled power of systematisation； collecting his material from all
sources； constructed so imposing an edifice of fallacy。 Avicenna；
according to his lights； imparted to contemporary medical science the
appearance of almost mathematical accuracy； whilst the art of therapeutics；
although empiricism did not wholly lack recognition； was deduced as a
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logical sequence from theoretical （Galenic and Aristotelian） premises。 Is it；
therefore； matter for surprise that the majority of investigators and
practitioners should have fallen under the spell of this consummation of
formalism and should have regarded the 'Canon' as an infallible oracle； the
more so in that the logical construction was impeccable and the premises；
in the light of contemporary conceptions； passed for incontrovertible
axioms？〃＇13＇
＇12＇ Withington： Medical History； London； 1894； pp。 151…152。
＇13＇ Neuburger： History of Medicine； Vol。 I； pp。 368…369。
Innumerable manuscri
