the evolution of modern medicine(现代医药的演变)-第7章
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coming in contact with the Babylonians；who； in all probability； received
from the former a scientific conception of the universe。 〃In Babylonia and
Assyria we have astrology first and astronomy afterwards； in Greece we
have the sequence reversedastronomy first and astrology afterwards〃
（Jastrow）。＇18＇
＇18＇ M。 Jastrow： Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia
and Assyria； New York； 1911； p。 256。
It is surprising to learn that； previous to their contact with the Greeks；
astrology as relating to the individual that is to say； the reading of the
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stars to determine the conditions under which the individual was bornhad
no place in the cult of the Babylonians and Assyrians。 The individualistic
spirit led the Greek to make his gods take note of every action in his life；
and his preordained fate might be read in the stars。〃A connecting link
between the individual and the movements in the heavens was found in an
element which they shared in common。 Both man and stars moved in
obedience to forces from which there was no escape。 An inexorable law
controlling the planets corresponded to an equally inexorable fate ordained
for every individual from his birth。 Man was a part of nature and subject to
its laws。 The thought could therefore arise that； if the conditions in the
heavens were studied under which a man was born； that man's future could
be determined in accord with the beliefs associated with the position of the
planets rising or visible at the time of birth or； according to other views； at
the time of conception。 These views take us back directly to the system of
astrology developed by Babylonian baru priests。 The basis on which the
modified Greek system rests is likewise the same that we have observed in
Babyloniaa correspondence between heaven and earth； but with this
important difference； that instead of the caprice of the gods we have the
unalterable fate controlling the entire universethe movements of the
heavens and the life of the individual alike〃 （Jastrow）。＇19＇
＇19＇ Ibid。； pp。 257…258。
From this time on until the Renaissance； like a shadow； astrology
follows astronomy。 Regarded as two aspects of the same subject； the one；
natural astrology； the equivalent of astronomy； was concerned with the
study of the heavens； the other； judicial astrology； was concerned with the
casting of horoscopes； and reading in the stars the fate of the individual。
As I mentioned； Greek science in its palmy days seems to have been
very free from the bad features of astrology。 Gilbert Murray remarks that
〃astrology fell upon the Hellenistic mind as a new disease falls upon some
remote island people。〃 But in the Greek conquest of the Roman mind；
astrology took a prominent role。 It came to Rome as part of the great
Hellenizing movement； and the strength of its growth may be gauged from
the edicts issued against astrologers as early as the middle of the second
century B。C。 In his introduction to his recent edition of Book II of the
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Astronomicon of Manilius； Garrod traces the growth of the cult； which
under the Empire had an extraordinary vogue。 〃Though these ＇heavenly＇
signs be far removed from us； yet does he ＇the god＇ so make their
influences felt； that they give to nations their life and their fate and to each
man his own character。〃＇20＇ Oracles were sought on all occasions； from
the planting of a tree to the mating of a horse； and the doctrine of the stars
influenced deeply all phases of popular thought and religion。 The
professional astrologers； as Pliny＇21＇ says； were Chaldeans； Egyptians and
Greeks。 The Etruscans； too； the professional diviners of Rome； cultivated
the science。 Many of these 〃Isiaci conjectores〃 and 〃astrologi de circo〃
were worthless charlatans； but on the whole the science seems to have
attracted the attention of thoughtful men of the period。 Garrod quotes the
following remarkable passage from Tacitus： 〃My judgment wavers；〃 he
says； 〃I dare not say whether it be fate and necessity immutable which
governs the changing course of human affairsor just chance。 Among the
wisest of the ancients； as well as among their apes； you will find a conflict
of opinion。 Many hold fixedly the idea that our beginning and our end
that man himselfis nothing to the Gods at all。 The wicked are in
prosperity and the good meet tribulation。 Others believe that Fate and the
facts of this world work together。 But this connection they trace not to
planetary influences but to a concatenation of natural causes。 We choose
our life that is free： but the choice once made； what awaits us is fixed and
ordered。 Good and evil are different from the vulgar opinion of them。
Often those who seem to battle with adversity are to be accounted blessed；
but the many； even in their prosperity； are miserable。 It needs only to bear
misfortune bravely； while the fool perishes in his wealth。 Outside these
rival schools stands the man in the street。 No one will take from him his
conviction that at our birth are fixed for us the things that shall be。 If some
things fall out differently from what was foretold； that is due to the deceit
of men that speak what they know not： calling into contempt a science to
which past and present alike bear a glorious testimony〃 （Ann。 vi； 22）。
＇20＇ Manili Astronomicon Liber II； ed。 H。 W。 Garrod； Oxford； 1911；
p。 lxix； and II； ll。 84…86。
＇21＇ Pliny： Natural History； Bk。 XVIII； Chap。 XXV； Sect。 57。
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Cato waged war on the Greek physicians and forbade 〃his uilicus all
resort to haruspicem； augurem； hariolum Chaldaeum；〃 but in vain； so
widespread became the belief that the great philosopher； Panaetius （who
died about 111 B。C。）； and two of his friends alone among the stoics；
rejected the claims of astrology as a science （Garrod）。 So closely related
was the subject of mathematics that it； too； fell into disfavor； and in the
Theodosian code sentence of death was passed upon mathematicians。
Long into the Middle Ages； the same unholy alliance with astrology and
divination caused mathematics to be regarded with suspicion； and even
Abelard calls it a nefarious study。
The third important feature in Babylonian medicine is the evidence
afforded by the famous Hammurabi Code （circa 2000 B。C。） a body of
laws； civil and religious； many of which relate to the medical profession。
This extraordinary document is a black diorite block 8 feet high； once
containing 21 columns on the obverse； 16 and 28 columns on the reverse；
with 2540 lines of writing of which now 1114 remain； and surmounted by
the figure of the king receiving the law from the Sun…god。 Copies of this
were set up in Babylon 〃that anyone oppressed or injured； who had a tale
of woe to tell； might come and stand before his image； that of a king of
righteousness； and there read the priceless orders of the King； and from the
written monument solve his problem〃 （Jastrow）。 From the enactments of
the code we gather that the medical profession must have been in a highly
organized state； for not only was practice regulated in detail； but a scale of
fees was laid down； and penalties exacted for malpraxis。 Operations were
performed； and the veterinary art was recognized。 An interesting feature；
from which it is lucky that we have in these days escaped； is the
application of the 〃lex talionis〃 an eye for an eye； bone for a bone； and
tooth for a tooth； which is a striking feature of the code。
Some of the laws of the code may be quoted：
Paragraph 215。 If a doctor has treated a gentleman for a severe
wound with a bronze lances and has cured the man； or has opened an
abscess of the eye for a gentleman with the bronze lances and has cured
the eye of the gentleman； he shall take ten shekels of silver。
218。 If the doctor has treated a gentleman for a severe wound with a
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lances of bronze and has caused the gentleman to die； or has opened an
abscess of the eye for a gentleman and has caused the loss of the
gentleman's eye； one shall cut off his hands。
219。 If a doctor has treated the severe wound of a slave of a poor man
with a bronze lances and has caused his death； he shall render slave for
slave。
220。 If he has opened his abscess with a bronze lances and has made
him lose his eye； he shall pay money； half his price。
221。 If a doctor has cured the shattered limb of a gentleman； or has
cured the diseased bowel； the patient shall give five shekels of silver to the
doctor。
224。 If a cow doctor or a sheep doctor has treated a cow or a sheep for
a severe wound and cured it； the owner of the cow or sheep shall give one…
sixth of a shekel of silver to the doctor as his fee。＇22＇
＇22＇ The Oldest Code of Laws in the World； translated by C。 H。 W。
Johns； Edinburgh； 1903。
HEBREW MEDICINE
THE medicine of the Old Testament betrays both Egyptian and
Babylonian influences； the social hygiene is a reflex of regulations the
origin of which may be traced in the Pyramid Texts and in the papyri。 The
regulations in the Pentateuch codes revert in part to primitive times； in part
represent advanced views of hygiene。 There are doubts if the Pentateuch
code really goes back to the days of Moses； but certainly someone
〃learned in the wisdom of the Egyptians〃 drew it up。 As Neuburger briefly
summarizes：
〃The commands concern prophylaxis and suppress
