the age of invention-第12章

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On　that　design　Howe　made　a　machine　which；　crude　as　it　was；　sewed　more　rapidly　than　five　of　the　swiftest　needle　workers。　But　apparently　to　no　purpose。　His　machine　was　too　expensive；　it　could　sew　only　a　straight　seam；　and　it　might　easily　get　out　of　order。　The　needle　workers　were　opposed；　as　they　have　generally　been；　to　any　sort　of　laborsaving　machinery；　and　there　was　no　manufacturer　willing　to　buy　even　one　machine　at　the　price　Howe　asked；　three　hundred　dollars。

Howe's　second　model　was　an　improvement　on　the　first。　It　was　more　compact　and　it　ran　more　smoothly。　He　had　no　money　even　to　pay　the　fees　necessary　to　get　it　patented。　Again　Fisher　came　to　the　rescue　and　took　Howe　and　his　machine　to　Washington；　paying　all　the　expenses；　and　the　patent　was　issued　in　September；　1846。　But；　as　the　machine　still　failed　to　find　buyers；　Fisher　gave　up　hope。　He　had　invested　about　two　thousand　dollars　which　seemed　gone　forever；　and　he　could　not；　or　would　not；　invest　more。　Howe　returned　temporarily　to　his　father's　farm；　hoping　for　better　times。

Meanwhile　Howe　had　sent　one　of　his　brothers　to　London　with　a　machine　to　see　if　a　foothold　could　be　found　there；　and　in　due　time　an　encouraging　report　came　to　the　destitute　inventor。　A　corsetmaker　named　Thomas　had　paid　two　hundred　and　fifty　pounds　for　the　English　rights　and　had　promised　to　pay　a　royalty　of　three　pounds　on　each　machine　sold。　Moreover；　Thomas　invited　the　inventor　to　London　to　construct　a　machine　especially　for　making　corsets。　Howe　went　to　London　and　later　sent　for　his　family。　But　after　working　eight　months　on　small　wages；　he　was　as　badly　off　as　ever；　for；　though　he　had　produced　the　desired　machine；　he　quarrelled　with　Thomas　and　their　relations　came　to　an　end。

An　acquaintance；　Charles　Inglis；　advanced　Howe　a　little　money　while　he　worked　on　another　model。　This　enabled　Howe　to　send　his　family　home　to　America；　and　then；　by　selling　his　last　model　and　pawning　his　patent　rights；　he　raised　enough　money　to　take　passage　himself　in　the　steerage　in　1848；　accompanied　by　Inglis；　who　came　to　try　his　fortune　in　the　United　States。

Howe　landed　in　New　York　with　a　few　cents　in　his　pocket　and　immediately　found　work。　But　his　wife　was　dying　from　the　hardships　she　had　suffered；　due　to　stark　poverty。　At　her　funeral；　Howe　wore　borrowed　clothes；　for　his　only　suit　was　the　one　he　wore　in　the　shop。

Then；　soon　after　his　wife　had　died；　Howe's　invention　came　into　its　own。　It　transpired　presently　that　sewing　machines　were　being　made　and　sold　and　that　these　machines　were　using　the　principles　covered　by　Howe's　patent。　Howe　found　an　ally　in　George　W。　Bliss；　a　man　of　means；　who　had　faith　in　the　machine　and　who　bought　out　Fisher's　interest　and　proceeded　to　prosecute　infringers。　Meanwhile　Howe　went　on　making　machineshe　produced　fourteen　in　New　York　during　1850and　never　lost　an　opportunity　to　show　the　merits　of　the　invention　which　was　being　advertised　and　brought　to　notice　by　the　activities　of　some　of　the　infringers；　particularly　by　Isaac　M。　Singer；　the　best　business　man　of　them　all。　Singer　had　joined　hands　with　Walter　Hunt　and　Hunt　had　tried　to　patent　the　machine　which　he　had　abandoned　nearly　twenty　years　before。

The　suits　dragged　on　until　1854；　when　the　case　was　decisively　settled　in　Howe's　favor。　His　patent　was　declared　basic；　and　all　the　makers　of　sewing　machines　must　pay　him　a　royalty　of　twenty…five　dollars　on　every　machine。　So　Howe　woke　one　morning　to　find　himself　enjoying　a　large　income；　which　in　time　rose　as　high　as　four　thousand　dollars　a　week；　and　he　died　in　1867　a　rich　man。

Though　the　basic　nature　of　Howe's　patent　was　recognized；　his　machine　was　only　a　rough　beginning。　Improvements　followed；　one　after　another；　until　the　sewing　machine　bore　little　resemblance　to　Howe's　original。　John　Bachelder　introduced　the　horizontal　table　upon　which　to　lay　the　work。　Through　an　opening　in　the　table；　tiny　spikes　in　an　endless　belt　projected　and　pushed　the　work　for　ward　continuously。　Allan　B。　Wilson　devised　a　rotary　hook　carrying　a　bobbin　to　do　the　work　of　the　shuttle；　and　also　the　small　serrated　bar　which　pops　up　through　the　table　near　the　needle；　moves　forward　a　tiny　space；　carrying　the　cloth　with　it；　drops　down　just　below　the　upper　surface　of　the　table；　and　returns　to　its　starting　point；　to　repeat　over　and　over　again　this　series　of　motions。　This　simple　device　brought　its　owner　a　fortune。　Isaac　M。　Singer；　destined　to　be　the　dominant　figure　of　the　industry；　patented　in　1851　a　machine　stronger　than　any　of　the　others　and　with　several　valuable　features；　notably　the　vertical　presser　foot　held　down　by　a　spring；　and　Singer　was　the　first　to　adopt　the　treadle；　leaving　both　hands　of　the　operator　free　to　manage　the　work。　His　machine　was　good；　but；　rather　than　its　surpassing　merits；　it　was　his　wonderful　business　ability　that　made　the　name　of　Singer　a　household　word。

By　1856　there　were　several　manufacturers　in　the　field；　threatening　war　on　each　other。　All　men　were　paying　tribute　to　Howe；　for　his　patent　was　basic；　and　all　could　join　in　fighting　him；　but　there　were　several　other　devices　almost　equally　fundamental；　and　even　if　Howe's　patents　had　been　declared　void　it　is　probable　that　his　competitors　would　have　fought　quite　as　fiercely　among　themselves。　At　the　suggestion　of　George　Gifford；　a　New　York　attorney；　the　leading　inventors　and　manufacturers　agreed　to　pool　their　inventions　and　to　establish　a　fixed　license　fee　for　the　use　of　each。　This　〃combination〃　was　composed　of　Elias　Howe；　Wheeler　and　Wilson；　Grover　and　Baker；　and　I。　M。　Singer；　and　dominated　the　field　until　after　1877；　when　the　majority　of　the　basic　patents　expired。　The　members　manufactured　sewing　machines　and　sold　them　in　America　and　Europe。　Singer　introduced　the　installment　plan　of　sale；　to　bring　the　machine　within　reach　of　the　poor；　and　the　sewing　machine　agent；　with　a　machine　or　two　on　his　wagon；　drove　through　every　small　town　and　country　district；　demonstrating　and　selling。　Meanwhile　the　price　of　the　machines　steadily　fell；　until　it　seemed　that　Singer's　slogan；　〃A　machine　in　every　home！〃　was　in　a　fair　way　to　be　realized；　had　not　another　development　of　the　sewing　machine　intervened。

This　was　the　development　of　the　ready…made　clothing　industry。　In　the　earlier　days　of　the　nation；　though　nearly　all　the　clothing　was　of　domestic　manufacture；　there　were　tailors　and　seamstresses　in　all　the　towns　and　many　of　the　villages；　who　made　clothing　to　order。　Sailors　coming　ashore　sometimes　needed　clothes　at　once；　and　apparently　a　merchant　of　New　Bedford　was　the　first　to　keep　a　stock　on　hand。　About　1831；　George　Opdyke；　later　Mayor　of　New　York；　began　the　manufacture　of　clothing　on　Hudson　Street；　which　he　sold　largely　through　a　store　in　New　Orleans。　Other　firms　began　to　reach　out　for　this　Southern　trade；　and　it　became　important。　Southern　planters　bought　clothes　not　only　for　their　slaves　but　for　their　families。　The　development　of　California　furnished　another　large　market。　A　shirt　factory　was　established；　in　1832；　on　Cherry　and　Market　Streets；　New　York。　But　not　until　the　coming　of　the　power…driven　sewing　machine　could　there　be　any　factory　production　of　clothes　on　a　large　scale。　Since　then　the　clothing　industry　has　become　one　of　the　most　important　in　the　country。　The　factories　have　steadily　improved　their　models　and　materials；　and　at　the　present　day　only　a　negligible　fraction　of　the　people　of　the　United　States　wear　clothes　made　to　their　order。

The　sewing　machine　today　does　many　things　besides　sewing　a　seam。　There　are　attachments　which　make　buttonholes；　darn；　embroider；　make　ruffles　or　hems；　and　dozens　of　other　things。　There　are　special　machines　for　every　trade；　some　of　which　deal　successfully　with　refractory　materials。

The　Singer　machine　of　1851　was　strong　enough　to　sew　leather　and　was　almost　at　once　adopted　by　the　shoemakers。　These　craftsmen　flourished　chiefly　in　Massachusetts；　and　they　had　traditions　reaching　back　at　least　to　Philip　Kertland；　who　came　to　Lynn　in　1636　and　taught　many　apprentices。　Even　in　the　early　days　before　machinery；　division　of　labor　was　the　rule　in　the　shops　of　Massachusetts。　One　workman　cut　the　leather；　often　tanned　on　the　premises；　another　sewed　the　uppers　together；　while　another　sewed　on　the　soles。　Wooden　pegs　were　invented　in　1811　and　came　into　common　use　about　1815　for　the　cheaper　grades　of　shoes：　Soon　the　practice　of　sending　out　the　uppers　to　be　done　by　women　in　their　own　homes　became　common。　These　women　were　wretchedly　paid；　and　when　the　sewing　machine　came　to　do　the　work　better　than　it　could　be　done　by　hand；　the　practice　of　〃putting　out〃　work　gradually　declined。

That　variation　of　the　sewing　machine　which　was　to　do　the　more　difficult　work　of　sewing　the　sole　to　the　upper　was　the　invention　of　a　mere　boy；　Lyman　R。　Blake。　The　first　model；　completed　in　1858；　was　imperfect；　but　Blake　was　able　to　interest　Gordon　McKay；　of　Boston；　and　three　years　of　patient　experimentation　and　large　expenditure　followed。　The　McKay　sole…sewing　machine；　which　they　produced；　came　into　use；　and　for　twenty…one　years　was　used　almost　universally　both　in　the　United　States　and　Great　Britain。　But　this；　like　all　the　other　useful　inventions；　was　in　time　enlarged　and　greatly　improved；　and　hundreds　of　other　inventions　have　been　made　in　the　shoe　industry。　There　are　machines　to　split　leather；　to　make　the　thickness　absolutely　uniform；　to　sew　the　uppers；　to　insert　eyelets；　to　cut　out　heel　tops；　and　many　more。　In　fact；　division　of　labor　has　been　carried　farther　in　the　making　of　shoes　than　in　most　industries；　for　there　are　said　to　be　about　three　hundred　separate　operations　in　making　a　pair　of　shoes。

From　small　beginnings　great　industries　have　grown。　It　is　a　far　cry　from　the　slow；　clumsy　machine　of　Elias　Howe；　less　than　three…quarters　of　a　century　ago；　to　the　great　factories　of　today；　filled　with　special　models；　run　at　terrific　speed　by　electric　current；　and　performing　tasks　which　would　seem　to　require　more　than　human　intelligence　and　skill。



CHAPTER　V。　THE　AGRICULTURAL　REVOLUTION

The　Census　of　1920　shows　that　hardly　thirty　per　cent　of　the　people　are　today　engaged　in　agriculture；　the　basic　industry　of　the　United　States；　as　compared　with　perhaps　ninety　per　cent　when　the　nation　began。　Yet　American　farmers；　though　constantly　diminishing　in　proportion　to　the　whole　population；　have　always　been；　and　still　are；　able　to　feed　themselves　and　all　their　fellow　Americans　and　a　large　part　of　the　outside　world　as　well。　They　bring　forth　also　not　merely　foodstuffs；　but　vast　quantities　of　raw　material　for　manufacture；　such　as　cotton；　wool；　and　hides。　This　immense　productivity　is　due　to　the　use　of　farm　machinery　on　a　scale　seen　nowhere　else　in　the　world。　There　is　still；　and　always　will　be；　a　good　deal　of　hard　labor　on　the　farm。　But　invention　has　reduced　the　labor　and　has　made　possible　the　carrying　on　of　this　vast　industry　by　a　relatively　small　number　of　hands。

The　farmers　of　Washington's　day　had　no　better　tools　than　had　the　farmers　of　Julius　Caesar's　day；　in　fact；　the　Roman　ploughs　were　probably　superior　to　those　in　general　use　in　America　eighteen　centuries　later。　〃The　machinery　of　production；〃　says　Henry　Adams；　〃showed　no　radical　difference　from　that　familiar　in　ages　long　past。　The　Saxon　farmer　of　the　eighth　century　enjoyed　most　of　the　comforts　known　to　Saxon　farmers　of　the　eighteenth。〃*　One　type　of　plough　in　the　Unit