the age of invention-第3章

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d　planned；　and　incidentally　learned　much　of　the　beliefs　of　a　group　of　settlers　in　the　back　country；　the　〃Unitas　Fratrum；〃　better　known　as　the　Moravians。

The　death　struggle　between　English　and　French　in　America　served　only　to　intensify　a　lesser　conflict　that　was　being　waged　between　the　Assembly　and　the　proprietors　of　Pennsylvania；　and　the　Assembly　determined　to　send　Franklin　to　London　to　seek　judgment　against　the　proprietors　and　to　request　the　King　to　take　away　from　them　the　government　of　Pennsylvania。　Franklin；　accompanied　by　his　son　William；　reached　London　in　July；　1757；　and　from　this　time　on　his　life　was　to　be　closely　linked　with　Europe。　He　returned　to　America　six　years　later　and　made　a　trip　of　sixteen　hundred　miles　inspecting　postal　affairs；　but　in　1764　he　was　again　sent　to　England　to　renew　the　petition　for　a　royal　government　for　Pennsylvania；　which　had　not　yet　been　granted。　Presently　that　petition　was　made　obsolete　by　the　Stamp　Act；　and　Franklin　became　the　representative　of　the　American　colonies　against　King　and　Parliament。

Franklin　did　his　best　to　avert　the　Revolution。　He　made　many　friends　in　England；　wrote　pamphlets　and　articles；　told　comical　stories　and　fables　where　they　might　do　some　good；　and　constantly　strove　to　enlighten　the　ruling　class　of　England　upon　conditions　and　sentiment　in　the　colonies。　His　examination　before　the　House　of　Commons　in　February；　1766；　marks　perhaps　the　zenith　of　his　intellectual　powers。　His　wide　knowledge；　his　wonderful　poise；　his　ready　wit；　his　marvelous　gift　for　clear　and　epigrammatic　statement；　were　never　exhibited　to　better　advantage　and　no　doubt　hastened　the　repeal　of　the　Stamp　Act。　Franklin　remained　in　England　nine　years　longer；　but　his　efforts　to　reconcile　the　conflicting　claims　of　Parliament　and　the　colonies　were　of　no　avail；　and　early　in　1775　he　sailed　for　home。

Franklin's　stay　in　America　lasted　only　eighteen　months；　yet　during　that　time　he　sat　in　the　Continental　Congress　and　as　a　member　of　the　most　important　committees；　submitted　a　plan　for　a　union　of　the　colonies；　served　as　Postmaster　General　and　as　chairman　of　the　Pennsylvania　Committee　of　Safety；　visited　Washington　at　Cambridge；　went　to　Montreal　to　do　what　he　could　for　the　cause　of　independence　in　Canada；　presided　over　the　convention　which　framed　a　constitution　for　Pennsylvania；　was　a　member　of　the　committee　appointed　to　draft　the　Declaration　of　Independence　and　of　the　committee　sent　on　the　futile　mission　to　New　York　to　discuss　terms　of　peace　with　Lord　Howe。

In　September；　1776；　Franklin　was　appointed　envoy　to　France　and　sailed　soon　afterwards。　The　envoys　appointed　to　act　with　him　proved　a　handicap　rather　than　a　help；　and　the　great　burden　of　a　difficult　and　momentous　mission　was　thus　laid　upon　an　old　man　of　seventy。　But　no　other　American　could　have　taken　his　place。　His　reputation　in　France　was　already　made；　through　his　books　and　inventions　and　discoveries。　To　the　corrupt　and　licentious　court　he　was　the　personification　of　the　age　of　simplicity；　which　it　was　the　fashion　to　admire；　to　the　learned；　he　was　a　sage；　to　the　common　man　he　was　the　apotheosis　of　all　the　virtues；　to　the　rabble　he　was　little　less　than　a　god。　Great　ladies　sought　his　smiles；　nobles　treasured　a　kindly　word；　the　shopkeeper　hung　his　portrait　on　the　wall；　and　the　people　drew　aside　in　the　streets　that　he　might　pass　without　annoyance。　Through　all　this　adulation　Franklin　passed　serenely；　if　not　unconsciously。

The　French　ministers　were　not　at　first　willing　to　make　a　treaty　of　alliance；　but　under　Franklin's　influence　they　lent　money　to　the　struggling　colonies。　Congress　sought　to　finance　the　war　by　the　issue　of　paper　currency　and　by　borrowing　rather　than　by　taxation；　and　sent　bill　after　bill　to　Franklin；　who　somehow　managed　to　meet　them　by　putting　his　pride　in　his　pocket；　and　applying　again　and　again　to　the　French　Government。　He　fitted　out　privateers　and　negotiated　with　the　British　concerning　prisoners。　At　length　he　won　from　France　recognition　of　the　United　States　and　then　the　Treaty　of　Alliance。

Not　until　two　years　after　the　Peace　of　1783　would　Congress　permit　the　veteran　to　come　home。　And　when　he　did　return　in　1785　his　people　would　not　allow　him　to　rest。　At　once　he　was　elected　President　of　the　Council　of　Pennsylvania　and　twice　reelected　in　spite　of　his　protests。　He　was　sent　to　the　Convention　of　1787　which　framed　the　Constitution　of　the　United　States。　There　he　spoke　seldom　but　always　to　the　point；　and　the　Constitution　is　the　better　for　his　suggestions。　With　pride　he　axed　his　signature　to　that　great　instrument；　as　he　had　previously　signed　the　Albany　Plan　of　Union；　the　Declaration　of　Independence；　and　the　Treaty　of　Paris。

Benjamin　Franklin's　work　was　done。　He　was　now　an　old　man　of　eighty…two　summers　and　his　feeble　body　was　racked　by　a　painful　malady。　Yet　he　kept　his　face　towards　the　morning。　About　a　hundred　of　his　letters；　written　after　this　time；　have　been　preserved。　These　letters　show　no　retrospection；　no　looking　backward。　They　never　mention　〃the　good　old　times。〃　As　long　as　he　lived；　Franklin　looked　forward。　His　interest　in　the　mechanical　arts　and　in　scientific　progress　seems　never　to　have　abated。　He　writes　in　October；　1787；　to　a　friend　in　France；　describing　his　experience　with　lightning　conductors　and　referring　to　the　work　of　David　Rittenhouse；　the　celebrated　astronomer　of　Philadelphia。　On　the　31st　of　May　in　the　following　year　he　is　writing　to　the　Reverend　John　Lathrop　of　Boston：

〃I　have　long　been　impressed　with　the　same　sentiments　you　so　well　express；　of　the　growing　felicity　of　mankind；　from　the　improvement　in　philosophy；　morals；　politics；　and　even　the　conveniences　of　common　living；　and　the　invention　of　new　and　useful　utensils　and　instruments；　so　that　I　have　sometimes　wished　it　had　been　my　destiny　to　be　born　two　or　three　centuries　hence。　For　invention　and　improvement　are　prolific；　and　beget　more　of　their　kind。　The　present　progress　is　rapid。　Many　of　great　importance；　now　unthought　of；　will；　before　that　period；　be　produced。〃

Thus　the　old　philosopher　felt　the　thrill　of　dawn　and　knew　that　the　day　of　great　mechanical　inventions　was　at　hand。　He　had　read　the　meaning　of　the　puffing　of　the　young　steam　engine　of　James　Watt　and　he　had　heard　of　a　marvelous　series　of　British　inventions　for　spinning　and　weaving。　He　saw　that　his　own　countrymen　were　astir；　trying　to　substitute　the　power　of　steam　for　the　strength　of　muscles　and　the　fitful　wind。　John　Fitch　on　the　Delaware　and　James　Rumsey　on　the　Potomac　were　already　moving　vessels　by　steam。　John　Stevens　of　New　York　and　Hoboken　had　set　up　a　machine　shop　that　was　to　mean　much　to　mechanical　progress　in　America。　Oliver　Evans；　a　mechanical　genius　of　Delaware；　was　dreaming　of　the　application　of　high…pressure　steam　to　both　road　and　water　carriages。　Such　manifestations；　though　still　very　faint；　were　to　Franklin　the　signs　of　a　new　era。

And　so；　with　vision　undimmed；　America's　most　famous　citizen　lived　on　until　near　the　end　of　the　first　year　of　George　Washington's　administration。　On　April　17；　1790；　his　unconquerable　spirit　took　its　flight。


In　that　year；　1790；　was　taken　the　First　Census　of　the　United　States。　The　new　nation　had　a　population　of　about　four　million　people。　It　then　included　practically　the　present　territory　east　of　the　Mississippi；　except　the　Floridas；　which　belonged　to　Spain。　But　only　a　small　part　of　this　territory　was　occupied。　Much　of　New　York　and　Pennsylvania　was　savage　wilderness。　Only　the　seacoast　of　Maine　was　inhabited；　and　the　eighty…two　thousand　inhabitants　of　Georgia　hugged　the　Savannah　River。　Hardy　pioneers　had　climbed　the　Alleghanies　into　Kentucky　and　Tennessee；　but　the　Northwest　Territorycomprising　Ohio；　Michigan；　Indiana；　Illinois；　and　Wisconsinwas　not　enumerated　at　all；　so　scanty　were　its　people；　perhaps　not　more　than　four　thousand。

Though　the　First　Census　did　not　classify　the　population　by　occupation　it　is　certain　that　nine…tenths　of　the　breadwinners　worked　more　or　less　upon　the　soil。　The　remaining　tenth　were　engaged　in　trade；　transportation；　manufacturing；　fishing　and　included　also　the　professional　men；　doctors；　lawyers；　clergymen；　teachers；　and　the　like。　In　other　words；　nine　out　of　ten　of　the　population　were　engaged　primarily　in　the　production　of　food；　an　occupation　which　today　engages　less　than　three　out　of　ten。　This　comparison；　however；　requires　some　qualification。　The　farmer　and　the　farmer's　wife　and　children　performed　many　tasks　which　are　now　done　in　factories。　The　successful　farmer　on　the　frontier　had　to　be　a　jack　of　many　trades。　Often　he　tanned　leather　and　made　shoes　for　his　family　and　harness　for　his　horses。　He　was　carpenter；　blacksmith；　cobbler；　and　often　boat…builder　and　fisherman　as　well。　His　wife　made　soap　and　candles；　spun　yarn　and　dyed　it；　wove　cloth　and　made　the　clothes　the　family　wore；　to　mention　only　a　few　of　the　tasks　of　the　women　of　the　eighteenth　century。

The　organization　of　industry；　however；　was　beginning。　Here　and　there　were　small　paper　mills；　glass　factories…though　many　houses　in　the　back　country　were　without　glass　windowspotteries；　and　iron　foundries　and　forges。　Capitalists；　in　some　places；　had　brought　together　a　few　handloom　weavers　to　make　cloth　for　sale；　and　the　famous　shoemakers　of　Massachusetts　commonly　worked　in　groups。

The　mineral　resources　of　the　United　States　were　practically　unknown。　The　country　seems　to　have　produced　iron　enough　for　its　simple　needs；　some　coal；　copper；　lead；　gold；　silver；　and　sulphur。　But　we　may　say　that　mining　was　hardly　practiced　at　all。

The　fisheries　and　the　shipyards　were　great　sources　of　wealth；　especially　for　New　England。　The　cod　fishers　numbered　several　hundred　vessels　and　the　whalers　about　forty。　Thousands　of　citizens　living　along　the　seashore　and　the　rivers　fished　more　or　less　to　add　to　the　local　food　supply。　The　deep…sea　fishermen　exported　a　part　of　their　catch；　dried　and　salted。　Yankee　vessels　sailed　to　all　ports　of　the　world　and　carried　the　greater　part　of　the　foreign　commerce　of　the　United　States。　Flour；　tobacco；　rice；　wheat；　corn；　dried　fish；　potash；　indigo；　and　staves　were　the　principal　exports。　Great　Britain　was　the　best　customer；　with　the　French　West　Indies　next；　and　then　the　British　West　Indies。　The　principal　imports　came　from　the　same　countries。　Imports　and　exports　practically　balanced　each　other；　at　about　twenty　million　dollars　annually；　or　about　five　dollars　a　head。　The　great　merchants　owned　ships　and　many　of　them；　such　as　John　Hancock　of　Boston；　and　Stephen　Girard　of　Philadelphia；　had　grown　very　rich。

Inland　transportation　depended　on　horses　and　oxen　or　boats。　There　were　few　good　roads；　sometimes　none　at　all　save　bridle　paths　and　trails。　The　settlers　along　the　river　valleys　used　boats　almost　entirely。　Stage…coaches　made　the　journey　from　New　York　to　Boston　in　four　days　in　summer　and　in　six　in　winter。　Two　days　were　required　to　go　between　New　York　and　Philadelphia。　Forty　to　fifty　miles　a　day　was　the　speed　of　the　best　coaches；　provided　always　that　they　did　not　tumble　into　the　ditch。　In　many　parts　of　the　country　one　must　needs　travel　on　horseback　or　on　foot。

Even　the　wealthiest　Americans　of　those　days　had　few　or　none　of　the　articles　which　we　regard　today　as　necessities　of　life。　The　houses　were　provided　with　openwhich；　however　cheerful；　did　not　keep　them　warmor　else　with　Franklin's　stoves。　To　strike　a　fire　one　must　have　t