the age of invention-第7章

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ed　to　see　his　steam　engine　the　greatest　single　factor　in　the　new　industrial　era　that　had　dawned　for　English…speaking　folk。

Boulton　and　Watt；　however；　though　they　were　the　pioneers；　were　by　no　means　alone　in　the　development　of　the　steam　engine。　Soon　there　were　rivals　in　the　field　with　new　types　of　engines。　One　of　these　was　Richard　Trevithick　in　England；　another　was　Oliver　Evans　of　Philadelphia。　Both　Trevithick　and　Evans　invented　the　high…pressure　engine。　Evans　appears　to　have　applied　the　high　pressure　principle　before　Trevithick；　and　it　has　been　said　that　Trevithick　borrowed　it　from　Evans；　but　Evans　himself　never　said　so；　and　it　is　more　likely　that　each　of　these　inventors　worked　it　out　independently。　Watt　introduced　his　steam　to　the　cylinder　at　only　slightly　more　than　atmospheric　pressure　and　clung　tenaciously　to　the　low…pressure　theory　all　his　life。　Boulton　and　Watt；　indeed；　aroused　by　Trevithick's　experiments　in　high…pressure　engines；　sought　to　have　Parliament　pass　an　act　forbidding　high　pressure　on　the　ground　that　the　lives　of　the　public　were　endangered。　Watt　lived　long　enough；　however；　to　see　the　high…pressure　steam　engine　come　into　general　favor；　not　only　in　America　but　even　in　his　own　conservative　country。

Less　sudden；　less　dramatic；　than　that　of　the　cotton　gin；　was　the　entrance　of　the　steam　engine　on　the　American　industrial　stage；　but　not　less　momentous。　The　actions　and　reactions　of　steam　in　America　provide　the　theme　for　an　Iliad　which　some　American　Homer　may　one　day　write。　They　include　the　epic　of　the　coal　in　the　Pennsylvania　hills；　the　epic　of　the　ore；　the　epic　of　the　railroad；　the　epic　of　the　great　city；　and；　in　general；　the　subjugation　of　a　continental　wilderness　to　the　service　of　a　vast　civilization。

The　vital　need　of　better　transportation　was　uppermost　in　the　thoughts　of　many　Americans。　It　was　seen　that　there　could　be　no　national　unity　in　a　country　so　far　flung　without　means　of　easy　intercourse　between　one　group　of　Americans　and　another。　The　highroads　of　the　new　country　were；　for　the　most　part；　difficult　even　for　the　man　on　horseback；　and　worse　for　those　who　must　travel　by　coach　or　post…chaise。　Inland　from　the　coast　and　away　from　the　great　rivers　there　were　no　roads　of　any　sort；　nothing　but　trails。　Highways　were　essential；　not　only　for　the　permanent　unity　of　the　United　States；　but　to　make　available　the　wonderful　riches　of　the　inland　country；　across　the　Appalachian　barrier　and　around　the　Great　Lakes；　into　which　American　pioneers　had　already　made　their　way。

Those　immemorial　pathways；　the　great　rivers；　were　the　main　avenues　of　traffic　with　the　interior。　So；　of　course；　when　men　thought　of　improving　transportation；　they　had　in　mind　chiefly　transportation　by　water；　and　that　is　why　the　earliest　efforts　of　American　inventors　were　applied　to　the　means　of　improving　traffic　and　travel　by　water　and　not　by　land。

The　first　men　to　spend　their　time　in　trying　to　apply　steam　power　to　the　propulsion　of　a　boat　were　contemporaries　of　Benjamin　Franklin。　Those　who　worked　without　Watt's　engine　could　hardly　succeed。　One　of　the　earliest　of　these　was　William　Henry　of　Pennsylvania。　Henry；　in　1763；　had　the　idea　of　applying　power　to　paddle　wheels；　and　constructed　a　boat；　but　his　boat　sank；　and　no　result　followed；　unless　it　may　be　that　John　Fitch　and　Robert　Fulton；　both　of　whom　were　visitors　at　Henry's　house；　received　some　suggestions　from　him。　James　Rumsey　of　Maryland　began　experiments　as　early　as　1774　and　by　1786　had　a　boat　that　made　four　miles　an　hour　against　the　current　of　the　Potomac。

The　most　interesting　of　these　early　and　unsuccessful　inventors　is　John　Fitch；　who；　was　a　Connecticut　clockmaker　living　in　Philadelphia。　He　was　eccentric　and　irregular　in　his　habits　and　quite　ignorant　of　the　steam　engine。　But　he　conceived　the　idea　of　a　steamboat　and　set　to　work　to　make　one。　The　record　of　Fitch's　life　is　something　of　a　tragedy。　At　the　best　he　was　an　unhappy　man　and　was　always　close　to　poverty。　As　a　young　man　he　had　left　his　family　because　of　unhappy　domestic　relations　with　his　wife。　One　may　find　in　the　record　of　his　undertakings　which　he　left　in　the　Philadelphia　Library；　to　be　opened　thirty　years　after　its　receipt；　these　words：　〃I　know　of　nothing　so　perplexing　and　vexatious　to　a　man　of　feelings　as　a　turbulent　Wife　and　Steamboat　building。〃　But　in　spite　of　all　his　difficulties　Fitch　produced　a　steamboat；　which　plied　regularly　on　the　Delaware　for　several　years　and　carried　passengers。　〃We　reigned　Lord　High　Admirals　of　the　Delaware；　and　no　other　boat　in　the　River　could　hold　its　way　with　us；〃　he　wrote。　〃Thus　has　been　effected　by　little　Johnny　Fitch　and　Harry　Voight　＇one　of　his　associates＇　one　of　the　greatest　and　most　useful　arts　that　has　ever　been　introduced　into　the　world；　and　although　the　world　and　my　country　does　not　thank　me　for　it；　yet　it　gives　me　heartfelt　satisfaction。〃　The　〃Lord　High　Admirals　of　the　Delaware；〃　however；　did　not　reign　long。　The　steamboat　needed　improvement　to　make　it　pay；　its　backers　lost　patience　and　faith；　and　the　inventor　gave　up　the　fight　and　retired　into　the　fastnesses　of　the　Kentucky　wilderness；　where　he　died。

The　next　inventor　to　struggle　with　the　problem　of　the　steamboat；　with　any　approach　to　success；　was　John　Stevens　of　Hoboken。　His　life　was　cast　in　a　vastly　different　environment　from　that　of　John　Fitch。　He　was　a　rich　man；　a　man　of　family　and　of　influence。　His　father's　houseafterwards　his　own…at　7　Broadway；　facing　Bowling　Greenwas　one　of　the　mansions　of　early　New　York；　and　his　own　summer　residence　on　Castle　Point；　Hoboken；　just　across　the　Hudson；　was　one　of　the　landmarks　of　the　great　river。　For　many　years　John　Stevens　crossed　that　river；　most　often　in　an　open　boat　propelled　by　sail　or　by　men　at　the　oars。　Being　naturally　of　a　mechanical　turn；　he　sought　to　make　the　crossing　easier。　To　his　library　were　coming　the　prints　that　told　of　James　Watt　and　the　steam　engine　in　England；　and　John　Fitch's　boat　had　interested　him。

Robert　Fulton's　Clermont；　of　which　we　shall　speak　presently；　was　undoubtedly　the　pioneer　of　practicable　steamboats。　But　the　Phoenix；　built　by　John　Stevens；　followed　close　on　the　Clermont。　And　its　engines　were　built　in　America；　while　those　of　the　Clermont　had　been　imported　from　England。　Moreover；　in　June；　1808；　the　Phoenix　stood　to　sea；　and　made　the　first　ocean　voyage　in　the　history　of　steam　navigation。　Because　of　a　monopoly　of　the　Hudson；　which　the　New　York　Legislature　had　granted　to　Livingston　and　Fulton；　Stevens　was　compelled　to　send　his　ship　to　the　Delaware。　Hence　the　trip　out　into　the　waters　of　the　Atlantic；　a　journey　that　was　not　undertaken　without　trepidation。　But；　despite　the　fact　that　a　great　storm　arose；　the　Phoenix　made　the　trip　in　safety；　and　continued　for　many　years　thereafter　to　ply　the　Delaware　between　Philadelphia　and　Trenton。

Robert　Fulton；　like　many　and　many　another　great　inventor；　from　Leonardo　da　Vinci　down　to　the　present　time；　was　also　an　artist。　He　was　born　November　14；　1765；　at　Little　Britain；　Lancaster　County；　Pennsylvania；　of　that　stock　which　is　so　often　miscalled　〃Scotch…Irish。〃　He　was　only　a　child　when　his　father　died；　leaving　behind　him　a　son　who　seems　to　have　been　much　more　interested　in　his　own　ideas　than　in　his　schoolbooks。　Even　in　his　childhood　Robert　showed　his　mechanical　ability。　There　was　a　firm　of　noted　gunsmiths　in　Lancaster；　in　whose　shops　he　made　himself　at　home　and　became　expert　in　the　use　of　tools。　At　the　age　of　fourteen　he　applied　his　ingenuity　to　a　heavy　fishing　boat　and　equipped　it　with　paddle…wheels；　which　were　turned　by　a　crank；　thus　greatly　lightening　the　labor　of　moving　it。

At　the　age　of　seventeen　young　Fulton　moved　to　Philadelphia　and　set　up　as　a　portrait　painter。　Some　of　the　miniatures　which　he　painted　at　this　time　are　said　to　be　very　good。　He　worked　hard；　made　many　good　friends；　including　Benjamin　Franklin；　and　succeeded　financially。　He　determined　to　go　to　Europe　to　studyif　possible　under　his　fellow　Pennsylvanian；　Benjamin　West；　then　rising　into　fame　in　London。　The　West　and　the　Fulton　families　had　been　intimate；　and　Fulton　hoped　that　West　would　take　him　as　a　pupil。　First　buying　a　farm　for　his　mother　with　a　part　of　his　savings；　he　sailed　for　England　in　1786；　with　forty　guineas　in　his　pocket。　West　received　him　not　only　as　a　pupil　but　as　a　guest　in　his　house　and　introduced　him　to　many　of　his　friends。　Again　Fulton　succeeded；　and　in　1791　two　of　his　portraits　were　exhibited　at　the　Royal　Academy；　and　the　Royal　Society　of　British　Artists　hung　four　paintings　by　him。

Then　came　the　commission　which　changed　the　course　of　Fulton's　life。　His　work　had　attracted　the　notice　of　Viscount　Courtenay；　later　Earl　of　Devon；　and　he　was　invited　to　Devonshire　to　paint　that　nobleman's　portrait。　Here　he　met　Francis；　third　Duke　of　Bridgewater；　the　father　of　the　English　canal　system；　and　his　hardly　less　famous　engineer；　James　Brindley；　and　also　Earl　Stanhope；　a　restless；　inquiring　spirit。　Fulton　the　mechanic　presently　began　to　dominate　Fulton　the　artist。　He　studied　canals；　invented　a　means　of　sawing　marble　in　the　quarries；　improved　the　wheel　for　spinning　flax；　invented　a　machine　for　making　rope；　and　a　method　of　raising　canal　boats　by　inclined　planes　instead　of　locks。　What　money　he　made　from　these　inventions　we　do　not　know；　but　somewhat　later　（1796）　he　speaks　hopefully　of　an　improvement　in　tanning。　This　same　year　he　published　a　pamphlet　entitled　〃A　Treatise　on　the　Improvement　of　Canal　Navigation〃；　copies　of　which　were　sent　to　Napoleon　and　President　Washington。

Fulton　went　to　France　in　1797。　To　earn　money　he　painted　several　portraits　and　a　panorama　of　the　Burning　of　Moscow。　This　panorama；　covering　the　walls　of　a　circular　hall　built　especially　for　it；　became　very　popular；　and　Fulton　painted　another。　In　Paris　he　formed　a　warm　friendship　with　that　singular　American；　Joel　Barlow；　soldier；　poet；　speculator；　and　diplomatist；　and　his　wife；　and　for　seven　years　lived　in　their　house。

The　long　and　complicated　story　of　Fulton's　sudden　interest　in　torpedoes　and　submarine　boats；　his　dealings　with　the　Directory　and　Napoleon　and　with　the　British　Admiralty　does　not　belong　here。　His　experiments　and　his　negotiations　with　the　two　Governments　occupied　the　greater　part　of　his　time　for　the　years　between　1797　and　1806。　His　expressed　purpose　was　to　make　an　engine　of　war　so　terrible　that　war　would　automatically　be　abolished。　The　world；　however；　was　not　ready　for　diving　boats　and　torpedoes；　nor　yet　for　the　end　of　war；　and　his　efforts　had　no　tangible　results。*

*　The　submarine　was　the　invention　of　David　Bushnell；　a　Connecticut　Yankee；　whose　〃American　Turtle〃　blew　up　at　least　one　British　vessel　in　the　War　of　Independence　and　created　much　consternation　among　the　King's　ships　in　American　waters。


During　all　the　years　after　1793；　at　least；　and　perhaps　earlier；　the　idea　of　the　steamboat　had　seldom　been　out　of　his　mind；　but　lack　of　funds　and　the　greater　urgency；　as　he　thought；　of　the　submarine　prevented　him　from　working　seriously　upon　it。　In　1801；　however；　Robert　R。　Livingston　came　to　France　as　American　Minister。　Livingston　had　already　made　some　unsuccessful　experiments　with　the　steamboat　in　the　United　States；　and；　in　1798；　had　received　the　monopoly　of　steam　navigation　on　the　waters　of　New　York　for　twenty　years；　provided　that　he　produced　a　vessel　within　twelve　months　able　to　steam　four　miles　an　hour。　T