thoughts on man-第29章

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they　may　yet　be　reserved　for　many　years　of　health；　of　consciousness　and　vigour。

The　language　of　the　hypothesis　of　self…love　was　well　adapted　to　the　courtiers　of　the　reign　of　Louis　the　Fourteenth。　　The　language　of　disinterestedness　was　adapted　to　the　ancient　republicans　in　the　purest　times　of　Sparta　and　Rome。

But　these　ancients　were　not　always　disinterested；　and　the　moderns　are　not　always　narrow；　self…centred　and　cold。　　The　ancients　paid；　though　with　comparative　infrequency；　the　tax　imposed　upon　mortals；　and　thought　of　their　own　gratification　and　ease；　and　the　moderns　are　not　utterly　disqualified　for　acts　of　heroic　affection。

It　is　of　great　consequence　that　men　should　come　to　think　correctly　on　this　subject。　　The　most　snail…blooded　man　that　exists；　is　not　so　selfish　as　he　pretends　to　be。　　In　spite　of　all　the　indifference　he　professes　towards　the　good　of　others；　he　will　sometimes　be　detected　in　a　very　heretical　state　of　sensibility　towards　his　wife；　his　child　or　his　friend；　he　will　shed　tears　at　a　tale　of　distress；　and　make　considerable　sacrifices　of　his　own　gratification　for　the　relief　of　others。

But　his　creed　is　a　pernicious　one。　　He　who　for　ever　thinks；　that　his　〃charity　must　begin　at　home；〃　is　in　great　danger　of　becoming　an　indifferent　citizen；　and　of　withering　those　feelings　of　philanthropy；　which　in　all　sound　estimation　constitute　the　crowning　glory　of　man。　　He　will　perhaps　have　a　reasonable　affection　towards　what　he　calls　his　own　flesh　and　blood；　and　may　assist　even　a　stranger　in　a　case　of　urgent　distress。But　it　is　dangerous　to　trifle　with　the　first　principles　and　sentiments　of　morality。　　And　this　man　will　scarcely　in　any　case　have　his　mind　prepared　to　hail　the　first　dawnings　of　human　improvement；　and　to　regard　all　that　belongs　to　the　welfare　of　his　kind　as　parcel　of　his　own　particular　estate。

The　creed　of　self…love　will　always　have　a　tendency　to　make　us　Frenchmen　in　the　frivolous　part　of　that　character；　and　Dutchmen　in　the　plodding　and　shopkeeping　spirit　of　barter　and　sale。　　There　is　no　need　that　we　should　beat　down　the　impulse　of　heroism　in　the　human　character；　and　be　upon　our　guard　against　the　effervescences　and　excess　of　a　generous　sentiment。　　One　of　the　instructors　of　my　youth　was　accustomed　to　say　to　his　pupils；　〃Do　not　be　afraid　to　commit　your　thoughts　to　paper　in　all　the　fervour　and　glow　of　your　first　conception：　　when　you　come　to　look　at　them　the　next　day；　you　will　find　this　gone　off　to　a　surprising　degree。〃　　As　this　was　no　ill　precept　for　literary　composition；　even　so　in　our　actions　and　moral　conduct　we　shall　be　in　small　danger　of　being　too　warm…hearted　and　too　generous。

Modern　improvements　in　education　are　earnest　in　recommending　to　us　the　study　of　facts；　and　that　we　should　not　waste　the　time　of　young　persons　upon　the　flights　of　imagination。　　But　it　is　to　imagination　that　we　are　indebted　for　our　highest　enjoyments；　it　tames　the　ruggedness　of　uncivilised　nature；　and　is　the　never…failing　associate　of　all　the　considerable　advances　of　social　man；　whether　in　throwing　down　the　strong　fences　of　intellectual　slavery；　or　in　giving　firmness　and　duration　to　the　edifice　of　political　freedom。

And　who　does　not　feel　that　every　thing　depends　upon　the　creed　we　embrace；　and　the　discipline　we　exercise　over　our　own　souls？

The　disciple　of　the　theory　of　self…love；　if　of　a　liberal　disposition；　will　perpetually　whip　himself　forward　〃with　loose　reins；〃　upon　a　spiritless　Pegasus；　and　say；　〃I　will　do　generous　things；　I　will　not　bring　into　contempt　the　master　I　servethough　I　am　conscious　all　the　while　that　this　is　but　a　delusion；　and　that；　however　I　brag　of　generosity；　I　do　not　set　a　step　forward；　but　singly　for　my　own　ends；　and　my　own　gratification。〃　　Meanwhile；　this　is　all　a　forced　condition　of　thought；　and　the　man　who　cherishes　it；　will　be　perpetually　falling　back　into　the　cold；　heartless　convictions　he　inwardly　retains。　　Self…love　is　the　unwholesome；　infectious　atmosphere　in　which　he　dwells；　and；　however　he　may　seek　to　rise；　the　wings　of　his　soul　will　eternally　be　drawn　downwards；　and　he　cannot　be　pervaded；　as　he　might　have　been；　with　the　free　spirit　of　genuine　philanthropy。　　To　be　consistent；　he　ought　continually　to　grow　colder　and　colder；　and　the　romance；　which　fired　his　youth；　and　made　him　forget　the　venomous　potion　he　had　swallowed；　will　fade　away　in　age；　rendering　him　careless　of　all　but　himself；　and　indifferent　to　the　adversity　and　sufferings　of　all　of　whom　he　hears；　and　all　with　whom　he　is　connected。

On　the　other　hand；　the　man　who　has　embraced　the　creed　of　disinterested　benevolence；　will　know　that　it　is　not　his　fitting　element　to　〃live　for　himself；　or　to　die　for　himself。〃　　Whether　he　is　under　the　dominion　of　family…affection；　friendship；　patriotism；　or　a　zeal　for　his　brethren　of　mankind；　he　will　feel　that　he　is　at　home。　　The　generous　man　therefore　looks　forward　to　the　time　when　the　chilling　and　wretched　philosophy　of　the　reign　of　Louis　the　Fourteenth　shall　be　forgotten；　and　a　fervent　desire　for　the　happiness　and　improvement　of　the　human　species　shall　reign　in　all　hearts。

I　am　not　especially　desirous　of　sheltering　my　opinions　under　the　authority　of　great　names：　　but；　in　a　question　of　such　vital　importance　to　the　true　welfare　of　men　in　society；　no　fair　advantage　should　be　neglected。　　The　author　of　the　system　of　〃self…love　the　source　of　all　our　actions〃　was　La　Rochefoucault；　and　the　whole　herd　of　the　French　philosophers　have　not　been　ashamed　to　follow　in　the　train　of　their　vaunted　master。　　I　am　grieved　to　say；　that；　as　I　think；　the　majority　of　my　refining　and　subtilising　countrymen　of　the　present　day　have　enlisted　under　his　banner。　　But　the　more　noble　and　generous　view　of　the　subject　has　been　powerfully　supported　by　Shaftesbury；　Butler；　Hutcheson　and　Hume。　　On　the　last　of　these　I　particularly　pique　myself；　inasmuch　as；　though　he　became　naturalised　as　a　Frenchman　in　a　vast　variety　of　topics；　the　greatness　of　his　intellectual　powers　exempted　him　from　degradation　in　this。

That　however　which　I　would　chiefly　urge　in　the　way　of　authority；　is　the　thing　mentioned　in　the　beginning　of　this　Essay；　I　mean；　the　sentiments　that　have　animated　the　authors　of　religion；　that　characterise　the　best　ages　of　Greece　and　Rome；　and　that　in　all　cases　display　themselves　when　the　loftiest　and　most　generous　sentiments　of　the　heart　are　called　into　action。　　The　opposite　creed　could　only　have　been　engendered　in　the　dregs　of　a　corrupt　and　emasculated　court；　and　human　nature　will　never　shew　itself　what　it　is　capable　of　being；　till　the　last　remains　of　a　doctrine；　invented　in　the　latter　part　of　the　seventeenth　century；　shall　have　been　consigned　to　the　execration　they　deserve。



ESSAY　XII。　OF　THE　LIBERTY　OF　HUMAN　ACTIONS。

The　question；　which　has　been　attended　with　so　long　and　obstinate　debates；　concerning　the　metaphysical　doctrines　of　liberty　and　necessity；　and　the　freedom　of　human　actions；　is　not　even　yet　finally　and　satisfactorily　settled。

The　negative　is　made　out　by　an　argument　which　seems　to　amount　to　demonstration；　that　every　event　requires　a　cause；　a　cause　why　it　is　as　it　is　and　not　otherwise；　that　the　human　will　is　guided　by　motives；　and　is　consequently　always　ruled　by　the　strongest　motive；　and　that　we　can　never　choose　any　thing；　either　without　a　motive　of　preference；　or　in　the　way　of　following　the　weaker；　and　deserting　the　stronger　motive＇26＇。

＇26＇　Political　Justice；　Book　IV；　Chap。　VII。


Why　is　it　then　that　disbelief　or　doubt　should　still　subsist　in　a　question　so　fully　decided？

For　the　same　reason　that　compels　us　to　reject　many　other　demonstrations。　　The　human　mind　is　so　constituted　as　to　oblige　us；　if　not　theoretically；　at　least　practically；　to　reject　demonstration；　and　adhere　to　our　senses。

The　case　is　thus　in　the　great　question　of　the　non…existence　of　an　external　world；　or　of　matter。　　How　ever　much　the　understanding　may　be　satisfied　of　the　truth　of　the　proposition　by　the　arguments　of　Berkeley　and　others；　we　no　sooner　go　out　into　actual　life；　than　we　become　convinced；　in　spite　of　our　previous　scepticism　or　unbelief；　of　the　real　existence　of　the　table；　the　chair；　and　the　objects　around　us；　and　of　the　permanence　and　reality　of　the　persons；　both　body　and　mind；　with　whom　we　have　intercourse。　　If　we　were　not；　we　should　soon　become　indifferent　to　their　pleasure　and　pain；　and　in　no　long　time　reason　ourselves　into　the　opinion　that　the　one　was　not　more　desirable　than　the　other；　and　conduct　ourselves　accordingly。

But　there　is　a　great　difference　between　the　question　of　a　material　world；　and　the　question　of　liberty　and　necessity。　　The　most　strenuous　Berkleian　can　never　say；　that　there　is　any　contradiction　or　impossibility　in　the　existence　of　matter。　　All　that　he　can　consistently　and　soberly　maintain　is；　that；　if　the　material　world　exists；　we　can　never　perceive　it；　and　that　our　sensations；　and　trains　of　impressions　and　thinking　go　on　wholly　independent　of　that　existence。

But　the　question　of　the　freedom　of　human　actions　is　totally　of　another　class。　　To　say　that　in　our　choice　we　reject　the　stronger　motive；　and　that　we　choose　a　thing　merely　because　we　choose　it；　is　sheer　nonsense　and　absurdity；　and　whoever　with　a　sound　understanding　will　fix　his　mind　upon　the　state　of　the　question　will　perceive　its　impossibility。

In　the　mean　time　it　is　not　less　true；　that　every　man；　the　necessarian　as　well　as　his　opponent；　acts　on　the　assumption　of　human　liberty；　and　can　never　for　a　moment；　when　he　enters　into　the　scenes　of　real　life；　divest　himself　of　this　persuasion。

Let　us　take　separately　into　our　consideration　the　laws　of　matter　and　of　mind。　　We　acknowledge　generally　in　both　an　established　order　of　antecedents　and　consequents；　or　of　causes　and　effects。　　This　is　the　sole　foundation　of　human　prudence　and　of　all　morality。　　It　is　because　we　foresee　that　certain　effects　will　follow　from　a　certain　mode　of　conduct；　that　we　act　in　one　way　rather　than　another。　　It　is　because　we　foresee　that；　if　the　soil　is　prepared　in　a　certain　way；　and　if　seed　is　properly　scattered　and　covered　up　in　the　soil　thus　prepared；　a　crop　will　follow；　that　we　engage　in　the　labours　of　agriculture。　　In　the　same　manner；　it　is　because　we　foresee　that；　if　lessons　are　properly　given；　and　a　young　person　has　them　clearly　explained　to　him；　certain　benefits　will　result；　and　because　we　are　apprised　of　the　operation　of　persuasion；　admonition；　remonstrance；　menace；　punishment　and　reward；　that　we　engage　in　the　labours　of　education。　　All　the　studies　of　the　natural　philosopher　and　the　chemist；　all　our　journeys　by　land　and　our　voyages　by　sea；　and　all　the　systems　and　science　of　government；　are　built　upon　this　principle；　that　from　a　certain　method　of　proceeding；　regulated　by　the　precepts　of　wisdom　and　experience；　certain　effects　may　be　expected　to　follow。

Yet；　at　the　same　time　that　we　admit　of　a　regular　series　of　cause　and　effect　in　the　operations　both　of　matter　and　mind；　we　never　fail；　in　our　reflections　upon　each；　to　ascribe　to　them　an　essential　difference。　　In　the　laws　by　which　a　falling　body　descends　to　the　earth；　and　by　which　the　planets　are　retained　in　their　orbits；　in　a　word；　in　all　that　relates　to　inanimate　nature；　we　readily　assent　to　the　existence　of　absolute　laws；　so　that；　when　we　have　once　ascertained　the　fundamental　principles　of　astronomy　and　physics；　we　rely　with　perfect