thoughts on man-第31章

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ng。

But　we　surely　have　a　very　different　idea　in　our　minds；　when　we　employ　the　term　duty。　　It　is　not　agreeable　to　the　use　of　language　that　we　should　use　this　term；　except　we　speak　of　a　being　in　the　exercise　of　volition。

＇30＇　Political　Justice；　Book　II；　Chap。　IV。


Duty　then　means　that　which　may　justly　be　required　of　a　human　creature　in　the　possession　of　liberty　of　action。　　It　includes　in　its　proper　sense　the　conception　of　the　empire　of　will；　the　notion　that　mind　is　an　arbiter；　that　it　sits　on　its　throne；　and　decides；　as　an　absolute　prince；　this　way　or　that。

Duty　is　the　performance　of　what　is　due；　the　discharge　of　a　debt　（debitum）。　　But　a　knife　owes　nothing；　and　can　in　no　sense　be　said　to　be　held　to　one　sort　of　application　rather　than　another；　the　debt　can　only　belong　to　a　human　being　in　possession　of　his　liberty；　by　whom　the　knife　may　be　applied　laudably　or　otherwise。

A　multitude　of　terms　instantly　occur　to　us；　the　application　of　which　is　limited　in　the　same　manner　as　the　term　duty　is　limited：　　such　are；　to　owe；　obligation；　debt；　bond；　right；　claim；　sin；　crime；　guilt；　merit　and　desert。　　Even　reward　and　punishment；　however　they　may　be　intelligible　when　used　merely　in　the　sense　of　motives　employed；　have　in　general　acceptation　a　sense　peculiarly　derived　from　the　supposed　freedom　of　the　human　will。

The　mode　therefore　in　which　the　advocates　of　the　doctrine　of　necessity　have　universally　talked　and　written；　is　one　of　the　most　memorable　examples　of　the　hallucination　of　the　human　intellect。　　They　have　at　all　times　recommended　that　we　should　translate　the　phrases　in　which　we　usually　express　ourselves　on　the　hypothesis　of　liberty；　into　the　phraseology　of　necessity；　that　we　should　talk　no　other　language　than　that　which　is　in　correspondence　with　the　severest　philosophy；　and　that　we　should　exert　ourselves　to　expel　all　fallacious　notions　and　delusions　so　much　as　from　our　recollection。　　They　did　not　perceive　what　a　wide　devastation　and　destruction　they　were　proposing　of　all　the　terms　and　phrases　that　are　in　use　in　the　communications　between　man　and　man　in　actual　life。They　might　as　well　have　recommended　that　we　should　rigorously　bear　in　mind　on　the　ordinary　occasions　of　life；　that　there　is　no　such　thing　as　colour；　that　which　we　ordinary　call　by　that　name　having　no　existence　in　external　objects；　but　belonging　only　to　our　way　of　perceiving　them。

The　language　which　is　suggested　to　us　by　the　conception　of　the　freedom　of　human　actions；　moulds　the　very　first　articulations　of　a　child；　〃I　will；〃　and　〃I　will　not；〃　and　is　even　distinctly　conveyed　by　his　gestures；　before　he　arrives　at　the　power　of　articulation。　　This　is　the　explanation　and　key　to　his　vehement　and　ungovernable　movements；　and　his　rebellion。　　The　petulance　of　the　stripling；　the　fervent　and　energetic　exertions　of　the　warrior；　and　the　calm　and　unalterable　resolution　of　the　sage；　all　imply　the　same　thing。　　Will；　and　a　confidence　in　its　efficiency；　〃travel　through；　nor　quit　us　till　we　die。〃　　It　is　this　which　inspires　us　with　invincible　perseverance；　and　heroic　energies；　while　without　it　we　should　be　the　most　inert　and　soulless　of　blocks；　the　shadows　of　what　history　records　and　poetry　immortalises；　and　not　men。

Free　will　is　an　integral　part　of　the　science　of　man；　and　may　be　said　to　constitute　its　most　important　chapter。　　We　might　with　as　much　propriety　overlook　the　intelligence　of　the　senses；　that　medium　which　acquaints　us　with　an　external　world　or　what　we　call　such；　we　might　as　well　overlook　the　consideration　of　man's　reason；　his　imagination　or　taste；　as　fail　to　dwell　with　earnest　reflection　and　exposition　upon　that　principle　which　lies　at　the　foundation　of　our　moral　energies；　fills　us　with　a　moral　enthusiasm；　prompts　all　our　animated　exertions　on　the　theatre　of　the　world；　whether　upon　a　wide　or　a　narrow　scale；　and　penetrates　us　with　the　most　lively　and　fervent　approbation　or　disapprobation　of　the　acts　of　ourselves　and　others　in　which　the　forwarding　or　obstructing　human　happiness　is　involved。

But；　though　the　language　of　the　necessarian　is　at　war　with　the　indestructible　feelings　of　the　human　mind；　and　though　his　demonstrations　will　for　ever　crumble　into　dust；　when　brought　to　the　test　of　the　activity　of　real　life；　yet　his　doctrines；　to　the　reflecting　and　enlightened；　will　by　no　means　be　without　their　use。　　In　the　sobriety　of　the　closet；　we　inevitably　assent　to　his　conclusions；　nor　is　it　easy　to　conceive　how　a　rational　man　and　a　philosopher　abstractedly　can　entertain　a　doubt　of　the　necessity　of　human　actions。　　And　the　number　of　these　persons　is　perpetually　increasing；　enlarged　and　dispassionate　views　of　the　nature　of　man　and　the　laws　of　the　universe　are　rapidly　spreading　in　the　world。　　We　cannot　indeed　divest　ourselves　of　love　and　hatred；　of　the　sentiments　of　praise　and　blame；　and　the　ideas　of　virtue；　duty；　obligation；　debt；　bond；　right；　claim；　sin；　crime；　guilt；　merit　and　desert。　　And；　if　we　could　do　so；　the　effects　would　be　most　pernicious；　and　the　world　be　rendered　a　blank。　　We　shall　however　unquestionably；　as　our　minds　grow　enlarged；　be　brought　to　the　entire　and　unreserved　conviction；　that　man　is　a　machine；　that　he　is　governed　by　external　impulses；　and　is　to　be　regarded　as　the　medium　only　through　the　intervention　of　which　previously　existing　causes　are　enabled　to　produce　certain　effects。　　We　shall　see；　according　to　an　expressive　phrase；　that　he　〃could　not　help　it；〃　and；　of　consequence；　while　we　look　down　from　the　high　tower　of　philosophy　upon　the　scene　of　human　affairs；　our　prevailing　emotion　will　be　pity；　even　towards　the　criminal；　who；　from　the　qualities　he　brought　into　the　world；　and　the　various　circumstances　which　act　upon　him　from　infancy；　and　form　his　character；　is　impelled　to　be　the　means　of　the　evils；　which　we　view　with　so　profound　disapprobation；　and　the　existence　of　which　we　so　entirely　regret。

There　is　an　old　axiom　of　philosophy；　which　counsels　us　to　〃think　with　the　learned；　and　talk　with　the　vulgar；〃　and　the　practical　application　of　this　axiom　runs　through　the　whole　scene　of　human　affairs。　　Thus　the　most　learned　astronomer　talks　of　the　rising　and　setting　of　the　sun；　and　forgets　in　his　ordinary　discourse　that　the　earth　is　not　for　ever　at　rest；　and　does　not　constitute　the　centre　of　the　universe。　　Thus；　however　we　reason　respecting　the　attributes　of　inanimate　matter　and　the　nature　of　sensation；　it　never　occurs　to　us；　when　occupied　with　the　affairs　of　actual　life；　that　there　is　no　heat　in　fire；　and　no　colour　in　the　rainbow。

In　like　manner；　when　we　contemplate　the　acts　of　ourselves　and　our　neighbours；　we　can　never　divest　ourselves　of　the　delusive　sense　of　the　liberty　of　human　actions；　of　the　sentiment　of　conscience；　of　the　feelings　of　love　and　hatred；　the　impulses　of　praise　and　blame；　and　the　notions　of　virtue；　duty；　obligation；　right；　claim；　guilt；　merit　and　desert。　　And　it　has　sufficiently　appeared　in　the　course　of　this　Essay；　that　it　is　not　desirable　that　we　should　do　so。　　They　are　these　ideas　to　which　the　world　we　live　in　is　indebted　for　its　crowning　glory　and　greatest　lustre。　　They　form　the　highest　distinction　between　men　and　other　animals；　and　are　the　genuine　basis　of　self…reverence；　and　the　conceptions　of　true　nobility　and　greatness；　and　the　reverse　of　these　attributes；　in　the　men　with　whom　we　live；　and　the　men　whose　deeds　are　recorded　in　the　never…dying　page　of　history。

But；　though　the　doctrine　of　the　necessity　of　human　actions　can　never　form　the　rule　of　our　intercourse　with　others；　it　will　still　have　its　use。　　It　will　moderate　our　excesses；　and　point　out　to　us　that　middle　path　of　judgment　which　the　soundest　philosophy　inculcates。　　We　shall　learn；　according　to　the　apostolic　precept；　to　〃be　angry；　and　sin　not；　neither　let　the　sun　go　down　upon　our　wrath。〃　　We　shall　make　of　our　fellow…men　neither　idols　to　worship；　nor　demons　to　be　regarded　with　horror　and　execration。　　We　shall　think　of　them；　as　of　players；　〃that　strut　and　fret　their　hour　upon　the　stage；　and　then　are　heard　no　more。〃　　We　shall　〃weep；　as　though　we　wept　not；　and　rejoice；　as　though　we　rejoiced　not；　seeing　that　the　fashion　of　this　world　passeth　away。〃　　And；　most　of　all；　we　shall　view　with　pity；　even　with　sympathy；　the　men　whose　frailties　we　behold；　or　by　whom　crimes　are　perpetrated；　satisfied　that　they　are　parts　of　one　great　machine；　and；　like　ourselves；　are　driven　forward　by　impulses　over　which　they　have　no　real　control。



ESSAY　XIII。　OF　BELIEF。

One　of　the　prerogatives　by　which　man　is　eminently　distinguished　from　all　other　living　beings　inhabiting　this　globe　of　earth；　consists　in　the　gift　of　reason。

Beasts　reason。　　They　are　instructed　by　experience；　and；　guided　by　what　they　have　already　known　of　the　series　of　events；　they　infer　from　the　sense　of　what　has　gone　before；　an　assured　expectation　of　what　is　to　follow。　　Hence；　〃beast　walks　with　man；　joint　tenant　of　the　shade；〃　and　their　sagacity　is　in　many　instances　more　unerring　than　ours；　because　they　have　no　affectation　to　mislead　them；　they　follow　no　false　lights；　no　glimmering　intimation　of　something　half…anticipating　a　result；　but　trust　to　the　plain；　blunt　and　obvious　dictates　of　their　simple　apprehension。　　This　however　is　but　the　first　step　in　the　scale　of　reason；　and　is　in　strictness　scarcely　entitled　to　the　name。

We　set　off　from　the　same　point　from　which　they　commence　their　career。　　But　the　faculty　of　articulate　speech　comes　in；　enabling　us　to　form　the　crude　elements　of　reason　and　inference　into　a　code。　　We　digest　explanations　of　things；　assigning　the　particulars　in　which　they　resemble　other　classes；　and　the　particulars　by　which　they　are　distinguished　from　whatever　other　classes　have　fallen　under　our　notice。　　We　frame　propositions；　and；　detaching　ourselves　from　the　immediate　impressions　of　sense；　proceed　to　generalities；　which　exist　only；　in　a　way　confused；　and　not　distinctly　adverted　to；　in　the　conceptions　of　the　animal　creation。

It　is　thus　that　we　arrive　at　science；　and　go　forward　to　those　subtleties；　and　that　perspicuity　of　explanation；　which　place　man　in　a　distinct　order　of　being；　leaving　all　the　other　inhabitants　of　earth　at　an　immeasurable　distance　below　him。　　It　is　thus　that　we　communicate　our　discoveries　to　each　other；　and　hand　down　the　knowledge　we　have　acquired；　unimpaired　and　entire；　through　successive　ages；　and　to　generations　yet　unborn。

But　in　certain　respects　we　pay　a　very　high　price　for　this　distinction。　　It　is　to　it　that　we　must　impute　all　the　follies；　extravagances　and　hallucinations　of　human　intellect。　　There　is　nothing　so　absurd　that　some　man　has　not　affirmed；　rendering　himself　the　scorn　and　laughing…stock　of　persons　of　sounder　understanding。　　And；　which　is　worst；　the　more　ridiculous　and　unintelligible　is　the　proposition　he　has　embraced；　the　more　pertinaciously　does　he　cling　to　it；　so　that　creeds　the　most　outrageous　and　contradictory　have　served　as　the　occasion　or　pretext　for　the　most　impassioned　debates；　bloody　wars；　inhuman　executions；　and　all　that　most　deeply　blots　and　dishonours　the　name　of　manwhile　often；　the　more　evanescent　and　frivolous　are　the　distinctions；　the　more　furious　and　inexpiable　have　been　the　contentions　they　have　produced。

The　result　of　the　whole；　in　the　vast　combinations　of　men　into　tribes　and　nations；　is；　that　thousands　and　millions　believe；　or　imagine　they　believe；　propositions　and　systems；