the idea of justice in political economy-第1章

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The　Idea　of　Justice　in　Political　Economy

by　Gustav　Schmoller

1881




Annals　of　the　American　Academy　of　Political　and　Social　Science
Volume　4；　（1893…4）

German　edition：　Jahrbuch　fur　Gesetzgebung　Verwallung；　und
Volkswirtschaft。
volume　1；　new　series　1881。
Translated　by　Ernest　Halle　and　Carl　Schutz


　　　　Is　there　a　just　distribution　of　economic　goods？　Or　should
there　be？　This　is　a　question　which　is　raised　again　to…day；　a
question　which　has　been　asked　as　long　as　human　society　and　social
institutions　have　existed。　The　greatest　thinker　of　ancient
history　asked　the　question　and　thousands　after　him　have　repeated
it；　sages　and　scholars；　great　statesmen　and　hungry　proletarians；
thoughtful　philanthropists　and　enthusiastic　idealists。
　　　　To…day　the　question　seems　less　opportune　than　ever。　Even
those　who　pride　themselves　on　their　idealism　declare　it　to　be　one
of　the　useless　questions　which　nobody　can　answer。
　　　　Aristotle's　ideas　of　distributive　justice　are　looked　down
upon　as　antiquated　and　set　aside　by　the　progress　of　science。
Comparing　superficially　the　phenomena　of　nature　with　the　social
processes；　Darwin's　theory　of　the　struggle　for　existence；　which
permits　the　strong　to　oppress　the　weak　and　excludes　all
possibility　of　a　just　distribution　of　earthly　possessions；　is
brought　into　play。　Many　political　economists　also　disregard　the
question；　the　more　so　the　father　they　are　removed　from
philosophical　inquiries；　and　the　more　they　delve　into　special
questions　remaining；　despite　many　concessions　to　modern　schools；
in　their　fundamental　views　in　the　beaten　paths　of　English　and
German　dogmas；　which　know　no　other　categories　than　demand　and
supply。　They　have；　as　a　rule；　a　vague；　half…conscious　feeling
that　socialism　demands　a　juster　distribution　of　goods；　and　hence
the　conservative　citizen　and　friend　of　order　has　no　choice　but　to
oppose　this　idea。　Those　who　harbor　such　thoughts　and　feelings
place　themselves；　it　is　true；　in　the　sharpest　contrast　to　the
great　founders　of　modern　social　science。
　　　　No　one　was　ever　more　convinced　that　his　proposed　reforms
would　effect　a　more　just　or　indeed　an　absolutely　just
distribution　of　goods　than　Adam　Smith　or　Turgot；　or　their　sincere
followers。　Faith　in　the　justice　of　its　demands　was　the　backbone
of　the　economics　of　natural　law。　As　a　consequence　of　〃natural
freedom　and　justice；〃　Adam　Smith　requires　freedom　of　migration
and　trade。　To　the　greatest　disciple　of　Adam　Smith；　for　thus　have
Ricardo's　ideas　been　recently　correctly　summarized；　free
individual　competition　appears　to　be　truest　justice　to　all
laboring　humanity。　This　is　not　accidental。　No　great　social　or
economic　reform　can　conquer　the　sluggish　resistance　which　opposes
it　by　merely　showing　its　utility。　Only　when　it　can　be　made　to
appear　that　what　is　demanded　is　the　demand　of　justice；　does　it
inflame　and　move　the　masses。　For　years　I　have　watched　in　public
discussions　and　in　economic　publications　hen　and　where　the
question　of　justice　was　drawn　into　economic　matters；　and　I　have
found　that　involuntarily　it　occurs　almost　everywhere。　In
discussing　the　bank　question；　the　opponent　of　unsecured　notes
declares　them　to　be　an　injustice；　when　duties　are　proposed；　the
free…trader　claims　first　that　they　are　unjust；　then　immoral；　and
only　in　the　third　place　that　they　are　economically　harmful。　In
all　discussions　about　the　change　in　the　German　customs　policy　of
1878；　both　sides　tried　to　prove　that　what　the　opponent　desired
especially　injured　the　working　man　and　the　small　capitalist；　and
thus　affected　in　the　most　unjust　way　the　distribution　of　income
and　wealth。　A　well…known　politician；　who　declares　the　discussion
of　justice　in　the　distribution　of　income　and　wealth　to　be
superfluous；　falls　into　the　same　mistake　with　which　he　reproaches
his　opponents；　in　his　polemic　against　Marx。　He　declares　the
present　distribution　of　wealth　in　Germany　to　be　legitimate；
because　it　was　not　the　possession　of　colonies；　not　the　work　of
slaves；　but　the　honest　labor　of　German　citizens　which　created
this　wealth。　He　thus　unconsciously　calls　attention　quite
correctly　to　the　central　idea　which　to…day　governs　the　popular
mind　in　regard　to　the　just　distribution　of　wealth。　A　leading
speaker　of　the　free…traders；　in　the　Reichstag；　said　that　to…day
the　naive　advocacy　of　low　wages　dare　no　longer　venture　into　the
light。　To…day　we　consider　conditions　economically　sound　only　when
they　guarantee　to　each　participant　in　the　work　a　just
participation　in　the　earnings。　And　he　adds：　〃The　economic　ideal
is　reached　when　the　greatest　production　and　the　most　uniform
distribution　among　the　participants　of　the　profits　earned
coincide。〃
　　　　Whether　a　just　distribution　of　goods　exists　in　reality　or
not；　a　question　which　for　the　present　I　will　leave　unanswered；
still　it　is　always　spoken　of；　there　is　a　general　belief　in　it；
this　belief　is　speculated　upon；　and　it　has　its　practical
consequences。
　　　　This　brings　us　to　the　correct　formulation　of　the　question
with　which　we　must　begin。　We　would　not　from　any　principle
whatsoever　logically　deduce　a　formula　whose　strict　application
would　at　all　times　produce　justice；　we　would　simply　and　modestly
put　the　question；　How　does　it　happen　that　economic　transactions
and　social　phenomena　so　often　bring　forth　a　favorable　or　adverse
criticism　which　asserts　that　this　is　just；　that　unjust？　When　we
have　a　correct　answer　to　this；　then　it　will　be　easy　to　draw
further　conclusions　and　to　decide　what　force；　weight　and
influence　this　approving　or　disapproving　judgment　will　exercise
retroactively　on　the　social　and　economic　phenomena。

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　I

　　　　Even　he　who　reduces　all　human　impulses　and　actions　to　the
feelings　of　pleasure　and　pain　must　admit　that；　as　far　as　we　know
human　nature；　there　are；　besides　lower　impulses；　higher
intellectual；　aesthetic　and　moral　ones。　They　give　to　life　those
ideal　aims；　from　them　grow　those　conceptions　which　accompany　and
influence　all　human　life；　all　actions；　all　institutions；　as　ideal
visions　of　what　ought　to　be。　Should　we　call　the　essence　of　what
ought　to　be；　the　abstract　Good；　the　abstract　Just　would　be　part
of　it。　Justice　is　a　human　virtue。　It　has　been　called　the　virtue
of　virtues。　It　is　the　permanent　habit　of　mankind　to　adapt　its
actions　to　the　ideas　which　we　call　the　abstract　Just。　The　Just
per　se；　anything　absolutely　just；　is　found　in　reality　as　little
and　as　seldom　as　anything　absolutely　good。　The　Just　is　always　an
ideal　conception；　to　which　reality　may　approach；　but　which　it
will　never　attain；　the　ethical　judgment　that　an　action　or　the
deeds　of　a　man　are　just　always　affirms　only　that　his　deeds
correspond　to　an　ideal　conception；　and　one　single　action　may
perhaps　completely　do　this；　but　a　man's　whole　life；　society　as　a
whole　and　its　actions　can　only　approach　it。　What　kind　of　an
action　do　we　call　just？　The　word　is　used　in　different　senses。　We
often　use　it　merely　to　indicate　that　the　individual　is　conforming
to　the　laws　of　the　whole；　that　his　actions　are　in　accord　with
positive　law。　We　use　it　also　in　the　much　broader　sense　to
describe　his　actions；　not　so　much　as　corresponding　to　positive
law　as　to　its　ideals。　We　oppose　a　right　that　ought　to　be　…　as　the
just　…　to　the　positive　law；　judge　the　latter　by　the　former；　and
call　actual　law　unjust　in　so　far　as　it　does　not　correspond　to
this　ideal。　The　conceptions　which　guide　us　herein；　and　from　which
we　derive　our　idea　of　the　just；　are　by　no　means　simple；　on　the
one　hand　the　peculiar　nature　of　legal　prescriptions；　being
certain　formal　rules　of　social　intercourse；　and　on　the　other　the
ideal　aims　of　social　life　which　determine　the　material　contents
of　law；　combine　to　create　this　ideal。　Conceptions　of　the　perfect
commonwealth　and　of　the　perfect　individual　are　associated　in　it。
When　we　speak　of　what　is　just　in　a　narrower　sense；　when　we　use
the　word　not　as　it　is　used　in　schools；　but　in　the　daily　usage　of
common　speech；　we　consider　only　one　of　these　conceptions；　or
better；　only　one　of　these　co…operating　spheres　of　conception。
When　we　speak　of　a　just　judge；　a　just　punishment；　or　just
institutions；　we　usually　conceive　of　a　society；　a　number　of
people；　a　comparison　of　them；　and　a　fair　distribution　of　good　and
of　bad；　of　that　which　causes　pain　and　pleasure；　measured　by
uniform　objective　standards。　The　specific　conception　of　justice；
the　one　which　principally　interests　us　here；　is　that　of　justice
in　distribution；　it　always　presupposes　the　proportionality　of　two
opposite　quantities；　one　of　human　beings　and　one　of　goods　which
are　to　be　distributed。　We　necessarily　classify　in　series；
according　to　objective　characteristics；　every　multiplicity　of
persons　which　appears　to　us　in　some　respect　as　a　unity；　and　the
ideal　conception　of　what　ought　to　be；　demands　the　distribution　of
goods　and　evils　according　to　this　classification。　By　this
standard　our　ideal　always　measures　reality。　Our　moral　judgment　is
always　active　in　estimating　the　actions　of　men；　their　vices　as
well　as　their　virtues　and　their　achievements　that　is　in　comparing
and　classifying　them。　Our　social　instinct　is　ever　active　in
fixing　the　relation　of　the　individual　and　his　doings　to　the　whole
of　the　community；　of　the　State　and　of　humanity；　in　measuring　and
locating　them　accordingly。　With　relentless　necessity　the
conviction　always　governs　us　that　this　classification　must
determine　the　distribution　of　honors　and　political　influence；　of
position；　of　incomes　and　punishments。　The　similar　should　be
treated　alike；　the　dissimilar　unlike。　It　is　a　reciprocity　of
human　actions　which　we　demand。　The　maintenance　of　reciprocity
appears　just；　its　disregard　unjust。　In　an　unjust　proportion　one
part　obtains　too　much；　the　other　too　little。　The　unjust　usurps
too　much　of　the　good　to　be　distributed；　the　unjustly　suffering
receives　too　little。
　　　　We　call　an　election　system　just　which　distributes　political
influence　according　to　individual　ability　and　merit　in　state　and
community。　We　call　a　penal　code　just　which；　in　spite　of　the
manifold　variety　of　misdemeanors　and　crimes；　in　spite　of　the
seeming　incomparability　of　the　different　punishments；　has　found　a
uniformly　weighing　system　which　parallels　offences　and
punishments　in　accordance　with　public　sentiment。　We　speak　of　a
just　gradation　of　salaries；　of　a　just　promotion　of　officers　in
every　stock　company；　in　every　railroad；　as　well　as　in　the　army；
and　in　the　hierarchy　of　State　officials。　We　speak　of　a　just
distribution　of　taxes；　of　a　just　gradation　of　wages；　of　just
profits；　of　a　just　interest　on　loans。　And　always　there　is　the
same　conception　in　the　background：　men　are　grouped　and　classified
according　to　certain　characteristics；　qualities；　deeds　and
accomplishments；　descent　and　prosperity。　Burdens　and　advantages
should　correspond　to　these　classes。
　　　　The　profit　of　an　undertaking　is　said　to　be　justly　higher　than
the　rate　of　interest；　because　a　greater　risk　and　an　indemnity　for
labor　are　therein　involved；　both　of　which　are　foreign　to
interest。　Interest　on　capital　is　just　because　the　lender　foregoes
a　possible　profit　or　enjoyment；　because　the　borrower　is　in　a　much
worse　position　without　this　aid；　and　because　for　the　service　of
the　one　a　consideration　from　the　other　seems　just。　The　h