the idea of justice in political economy-第4章

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offence。〃　And　Trendelenburg；　in　a　similar　fashion；　affirms　that
the　moral　estimation　of　political　and　economic　affairs　is；　at
bottom；　derived　from　the　same　standpoint。　〃Indeed；〃　he　says；　〃in
the　structure　of　the　State　the　constant　proportion　between　duties
and　rights　is　the　fundamental　idea　of　justice；　and　the　same
proportion　between　labor　and　earnings　should　be　aimed　at　in
private　intercourse；　but　the　market　price　makes　the　exponent　so
variable；　that　it　causes　a　constant　inequality。〃　The　execution
thus　seems　dim　to　him；　but　it　appears　to　him　the　ideal　condition；
that　labor　and　earnings　should　accord；　as　duty　does　with　right。
　　　　There　is　no　doubt　that　this　conception　is　confronted　by
another　which　results　from　the　investigation　of　details；　which　is
not　the　outgrowth　of　popular　instincts　and　sentiment；　and　is　even
often　involuntarily　denied　by　its　very　representatives；　but
through　the　authority　of　certain　doctrines　has　become
nevertheless　of　great　importance　for　practical　life。　I　mean　the
conception　which　sees　in　the　difference　between　rich　and　poor
only　an　occurrence　of　nature。　In　the　investigation　of　the
immediate　causes　of　the　distribution　of　wealth；　this　conception
is　not　able　to　discover　the　remoter　causes。　It　sees　only　demand
and　supply；　proportions；　natural　phenomena；　climatic　influences；
the　accidents　of　life　and　death；　all　these　are　unquestionably
mechanical　causes　which　influence　this　or　that　distribution　of
incomes。　The　earnings　of　the　individual；　it　is　said；　are
determined　by　the　〃strength　and　the　luck　of　the　individual。〃　
Free　intercourse　appears　as　the　analogy　of　the　Darwinian　struggle
for　existence。　Might　makes　right；　purposes　and　moral　judgments
are　not　here　in　consideration；　or　only　to　a　limited　extent。　So
far　as　mankind　demands　a　just　distribution　of　incomes；　their
ideas　ate　in　the　main　foolish；　justice　may　at　the　most　be
demanded　of　the　State　when　it　intervenes　directly；　opposed　as　it
is　to　free　intercourse　and　the　legitimate　influence　of　fortune；
this　striving　is　wrong。　〃Shall　we；〃　we　hear　from　this　quartet；
〃censure　our　God；　that　He　so　frequently　interferes　unjustly？
Shall　we　prescribe　to　Him　where　His　lightnings　shall　strike　and
where　He　shall　permit　the　bullets　to　hit？　Shall　we　quarrel　with
nature　because　she　grants　the　delicious　fruits　of　the　south　and
an　olympic　existence　to　one　race；　while　she　banishes　another　to
the　reeking　hovels　of　the　arctic？〃
　　　　We　will　not　dismiss　this　conception　of　things　by　the
accusation　of　materialism；　for；　though　materialistic；　it
nevertheless　has　the　merit　of　being　realistic　and　of　having
further　detailed　investigation　in　certain　directions。　But
whatever　its　merits　in　this　direction；　our　question　is　not　really
touched　at　all　by　these　arguments。　The　individual　scholar　who；　in
his　researches；　considers　only　forces；　proportions；　demand　and
supply；　and　endeavors　to　grasp　them；　may　ignore　the　question
whether　the　result　be　just；　but　the　popular　mind　will　always
repeat　the　question　as　long　as　it　sees　before　it　human　actions。
　　　　But　only　to　this　extent　and　always　to　this　extent；　and
furthermore　the　uncertain　results　of　fortune　and　the　course　of
natural　processes　also　will　appear　just　or　unjust　to　him　who
believes　that　they　are　governed　by　a　just　Providence　ruling
analogously　to　human　actions；　may　the　compensation　only　occur　in
another　world；　it　is　expected　and　demanded　by　the　soul。
　　　　When　on　the　other　hand　the　intellect　sees　but　blind　forces；
it　consoles　itself　with　the　argument　that　it　is　not　the　task　of
humanity　to　master　them；　then　he　will　no　longer　demand　justice
from　the　flashing　lightning；　from　the　hostile　bullet　from　the
demon　of　cholera　and　the　sunny　zephyrs；　but　always　from　all
conscious　actions　of　human　beings。
　　　　The　distinction　is　therefore　not；　as　has　been　claimed；
between　State　and　chance；　State　and　free　intercourse；
governmental　distribution　and　distribution　by　demand　and　supply；
but　the　antithesis　is　this：　As　far　as　human　action　governs　and
influences　the　distribution　of　incomes；　so　far　this　action　will
create　the　psychological　processes　whose　final　result　is　the
judgment　which　finds　the　distribution　just　or　unjust；　so　far　as
blind　extra…human　causes　interfere；　reasonable　reflection　will
demand　that　men　should　submit　to　them　with　resignation。
　　　　If　it　is　objected　that　demand　and　supply　distribute　incomes；
we　reply　in　the　first　instance：　Are　demand　and　supply　blind
powers　independent　of　human　influence？　This　year's　crops　depend
on　rain　and　sunshine；　but　the　average　results　of　our　crops　are　a
product　of　our　cultivation。　Demand　and　supply　are　summary　terms
for　the　magnitudes　of　opposing　groups　of　human　wills。　The　causes
and　conditions　of　these　magnitudes　are　partly　natural；　mostly
however；　human　relations　and　powers；　human　deliberations　and
actions。
　　　　If　it　is　objected　that　nature　conditions　the　wealth　of　a
nation；　we　answer：　She　certainly　does　in　part；　and　as　far　as　she
does；　no　one　thinks　it　unjust　that　one　nation　is　rich　and　the
other　poor。　But　when　one　nation　enslaves；　plunders　and　keeps　in
subjection　another；　we　immediately　find　the　wealth　of　the　former
and　the　poverty　of　the　latter　unjust。
　　　　If　it　is　objected　that　the　one　man　is　wealthier　than　the
other　because　he　was　not　compelled　to　divide　his　inheritance　with
brother　and　sister；　that　the　one　has　the　good　fortune　to　possess
a　healthy　wife；　the　other　not；　we　answer：　No　normal　feeling　of
right　wishes　to　do　away　with　such　chance　of　fortune。　But　the
question　is；　if　such　effects　of　nature；　not　subject　to　our
influence；　which　we　call　fortune　or　chance；　are　indeed　the
essential　causes　of　the　distribution　of　incomes　and　wealth。　In
such　a　case　there　could　be　no　science　of　political　economy　or
social　policy；　for　the　irregular　game　of　chance　cannot　be　brought
under　general　points　of　view。
　　　　If　it　is　objected　that　labor　and　not　the　State　distributes
incomes；　we　answer　that　this　is　a　surprising　objection　in　the
mouth　of　one　who　declares　strength　and　fortune　both　at　the　same
time　to　be　the　causes　of　distribution。　For　the　objection　has
meaning　only　when　it　signifies　that　different　labor　and　different
accomplishments　produce　correspondingly　different　compensation。
In　our　eyes；　labor　produces　goods；　builds　houses；　bakes　bread；
but　it　does　not　directly　distribute　incomes。　The　different　kinds
of　labor　will　affect　distribution　only　by　their　different
valuations　in　society。　The　demand　for　this　or　that　labor　will
influence　its　market　price；　but　the　moral　valuation　of　this　or
that　labor　will　influence　the　judgment　whether　this　price　is
just。　Thus　labor　influences；　indirectly　it　is　true；　the
distribution　of　incomes；　but　in　such　a　case；　and　so　far　as　it
does　so；　it　excludes　the　notion　of　luck　or　chance。
　　　　Both　assertions；　however；　confine　themselves　too　closely　to
the　individual　distribution　of　incomes；　whereas　for　the　economist
the　essential　point　is　the　distribution　among　the　classes　of
society。　For　every　more　general　scientific　or　practical　inquiry
it　is　not　the　important　point　whether　Tom；　the　day　laborer；　has
more　than　Dick　or　Harry；　whether　the　grocer；　Jones；　earns　more
than　Brown；　whether　the　banker；　Bleichroder；　has　better　luck　in
his　speculations　than　the　banker；　Hanseman；　about　this　general
judgments　will　only　occasionally　be　formed。　The　average　wages　of
the　day　laborer；　the　average　condition　of　domestic　workers；　the
average　profits　of　the　class　of　promoters；　the　average　profits　of
grocers；　of　landed　proprietors；　of　farmers　on　the　other　hand　are
considered　by　public　opinion　and　judged　to　be　justified　or　not。
And　these　earnings　are　surely　not　dependent　on　fortune　or　chance；
they　are　the　result　of　the　average　qualities　of　the　respective
classes　in　connection　with　their　relations　to　the　other　classes
of　society；　they　are　in　the　main　the　result　of　human
institutions。
　　　　The　prevailing　rights　of　property；　inheritance　and　contract
form　the　centre　of　the　institutions　which　govern　the　distribution
of　incomes。　Their　forms　for　the　time　being　determine　a　democratic
or　aristocratic　distribution　of　wealth。　Who；　for　instance；　has
made　the　division　of　landed　property；　which　generally　determines
the　distribution　of　both　wealth　and　income？　Is　it　nature；　luck　or
chance；　or　demand　and　supply？　No；　in　the　first　place　the　social
and　agrarian　institutions　of　the　past　and　present。　Wherever　small
peasant　proprietorship　prevails　to…day；　it　is　derived　from　the
mediaeval　village　community　system　and　the　law　of　peasant
succession。　Wherever　we　meet　with　a　system　of　large　estates　we
see　a　result　of　the　baronial　and　feudal　system；　of　the　later
manorial　regime　and　of　the　system　of　estates；　at　present　the
institutions　of　mortgages　and　leases　play　a　part；　the　legislation
touching　the　commutation　of　tenures　and　system　of　cultivation
were　of　the　same　importance　to　Germany　as　the　colonial　system　of
other　governments　to　their　colonies。　In　the　distribution　of
personal　property　individual　qualities　are　more　prevalent　than　in
that　of　real　estate。　But　nevertheless　the　institutions　of　ancient
and　modern　times　seem　to　us　the　most　important。　The　forms　of
undertakings　and　the　legal　status　of　the　laboring　classes　are　the
essential　points　：　wherever　slavery　prevailed　it　governed　at　all
times　the　whole　economic　life；　the　whole　social　classification
and　the　distribution　of　incomes；　guilds　were；　at　the　time　of
their　consistent　　maintenance；　as　much　an　institution　of
distribution　of　incomes　as　an　organization　of　labor；　and　the　same
is　true　of　the　domestic　system　of　industry　of　the　seventeenth　and
eighteenth　century　with　its　governmental　regulation；　the　ruling
considerations　were　the　needs　of　commerce　and　technical　practice
on　the　one　hand；　the　situation　of　the　laborers　in　a　domestic
system　of　industries　on　the　other。　And　are　not　to…day　the
institutions　of　unrestricted　trade　and　interest　on　loans；　of　the
exchanges　and　the　system　of　public　debts；　the　forms　of
undertakings；　the　system　of　joint　stock　companies；　of
co…operative　associations；　the　unions　and　corporations　of
employers　and　laborers；　all　labor　law；　the　institutions　of
friendly　and　similar　societies　the　material　foundation　and　cause
of　our　present　distribution　of　incomes？　The　individual　causes　and
the　chance　of　luck　effect　within　the　bounds　of　these　institutions
the　little　aberrations　of　personal　destiny；　the　position　of
social　classes　in　general　is　determined　by　the　institutions。
　　　　What　are　economic　institutions　but　a　product　of　human
feelings　and　thought；　of　human　actions；　human　customs　and　human
laws？　And　just　this　causes　us　to　apply　the　standard　of　justice　to
their　results；　just　this　makes　us　inquire　whether　they　and　their
effects　are　just　or　unjust。　We　do　not　require　the　distribution　of
incomes　or　wealth　to　be　just　absolutely；　we　do　not　require　it　of
technical　economic　acts　which　do　not　concern　others；　but　we　do
require　the　numerous　economic　acts　which　on　the　basis　of　barter
and　division　of　labor　concern　others　and　entire　communities　to　be
just。
　　　　Where　such　acts　come　into　consideration　our　observations
discern　moral　communities；　their　common　aims　and　the　human
qualities；　which　are　connected　with　these　aims。
　　　　The　most　primitive　barte