the idea of justice in political economy-第6章

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moral　ideas　will　of　course　never　cease；　but　only　be　moderated。
All　human　life　only　exists　under　the　presumption　of　this　never
ceasing　internal　combat。　There　are　always　claims　of　economic
justice　which　appear　to　be　only　bold　ideal　dreams；　but　there　are
always　many　which　have　conquered　in　life；　or　at　least　have
obtained　for　themselves　the　majorities；　the　leading　powers。　And
to　them　the　more　refined　economic　culture　owes　its　humane
character。
　　　　Practically　the　most　important　form　in　which　these　ideas
conquer　is　that　of　custom　and　of　law。　Without　these　formal　means
the　conceptions　and　judgments　of　justice　cannot　easily　be
realized；　cannot　easily　be　transmitted　from　generation　to
generation。　Custom　and　law　lend　permanence　and　stability　to　ideas
of　morality；　and　effect　the　agreement　of　men　about　that　which
ought　to　be。　From　the　moral　disposition　of　men　arise　rules　of
custom；　which　as　distinct　rules　of　life　curb　the　wild　play　of
passions　and　impulses。　Custom　is　that　which　we　regularly
practice；　originating　in　experience　and　recollection；　in　the
judicious　conception　of　common　purpose　and　in　moral　reflection。
As　crude　as　custom　may。　originally　be；　its　rule　is　always　an
improvement　in　comparison　with　the　purely　natural　play　of
instincts。　It　appears　to　the　growing　generation　the　appropriate；
necessary；　just　and　obvious　condition　of　all　intercourse；　all
division　of　labor；　all　social　existence。　As　an　independent　power
it　confronts　the　individuals　and　their　impulses　and　becomes　the
foundation　of　all　morals；　all　religion；　as　well　as　all　rights　and
all　institutions。
　　　　Originally　inflexible　and　relentless　in　itself　custom　later
becomes　more　variable　in　individual　morality；　adapts　itself　to
conditions；　though　it　still　exacts　the　more　noble　and　sublime；　in
the　positive　law；　which　is　gradually　separated　from　custom；　it
becomes　a　rule；　demanding　less；　but　for　this　〃less〃　a　much
stricter　obedience。　Custom　in　higher　stages　of　culture　only
prevails　through　fear　of　reproach；　of　contempt；　of　social
ostracism。　Formal　law　only　chooses　the　rules　of　social　life　most
important　for　common　interest；　but　enforces　their　observation；
when　necessary；　through　the　physical　compulsion　which　the　whole
can　exercise　over　the　individual。
　　　　Internally　of　the　same　nature　as　morals　and　custom；　i。e。；
originating　equally　in　social　ideals　and　primarily　in　the　idea　of
justice；　the　law　adopts　through　its　external；　formal　nature　the
character　of　something　independent；　in　consequence　of　which
independence　the　law　can　only　uphold　justice　within　its　own　range
and　can　only　execute　it　in　a　certain　sense。
　　　　To　the　essence　of　right　and　law；　as　it　has　been　evolved　from
religion；　morals　and　customs　by　an　experience　of　many　thousand
years；　belongs　above　all　the　uniform　and　sure　execution　of　the
rules　which　have　once　been　confirmed　universally　and　uniformly。
Without　uniform　application；　without　a　sure　administration；　law
does　not　remain　law。　To　achieve　this　is　extraordinary　difficult；
on　account　of　the　manifold　complexity　of　life。　The　goal　we　can
only　reach　by　limiting　ourselves　to　that　which　is　of　the　most
importance　and　by　long；　laborious；　logical　brain…work；　which
reduces　the　rules　of　law　to　a　few　clear　and　universally
intelligible　sentences。　The　exercise　of　the　judicial　power　is
raised　by　this　quality　above　the　level　of　personal　feelings　and
changing　disposition；　laws　are　guided　by　it　to　a　safe　and　uniform
application。　The　more　severely　law　interferes；　subordinates
details；　proceeds　radically　and　relentlessly；　the　more　important
this　formal　criterion　grows。　The　uniform　and　just　application　of
law　becomes　so　important　that　the　imperfect　law　whose　just
application　is　secured　is　preferred　to　the　more　perfect　and
materially　more　just　law　whose　application　varies；　becomes
uncertain　and　thus　unjust　everywhere　or　in　the　hands　of　judges
and　officials　of　to…day。　Nearly。　all　positive　law；　therefore；　and
especially　written　law；　which　the　thinking　mind　generates　by　the
machinery　of　legislation；　which　has　not　as　customary　law　been
derived　from　use；　is　inflexible；　feeble；　confined　to　outward；
clearly　visible　marks；　it　cannot　regard　individualities　and　their
natures；　it　deals　with　rough　averages。　Instead　of　testing
individuals；　for　example；　it　divides　adults　and　minors　according
to　a　fixed　age；　approximately　correct　for　the　totality；　but　more
or　less　arbitrary　in　regard　to　the　individual。　It　calls　all　adult
men　to　the　polls；　not　because　they　are　really　of　equal　importance
to　the　commonwealth；　but　because　the　application　of　every　more
complicated　distinction　would　result　practically　in　greater
injustices。　Thus　law　becomes　often　inequitable　and　materially
unjust；　not　because　formal　justice　is　superior；　but　because　it　is
more　easily　attained　in　the　existing　stage　of　civilization。　This
gives　rise　to　thousands　of　conflicts　between　material　and　formal
…　justice；　which　are　so　often　decisive　for　the　practical
questions　of　distribution　of　wealth　and　incomes。
　　　　If　there　is　any　demand　of　justice　which　it　is　desired　to
introduce　into　our　institutions　through　the　channel　of　ordinary
reform　by　positive　law；　it　is　not　only　necessary　that　the　demand
be　recognized　and　desired　by　the　best　as　right；　that　it　must　have
become　custom　in　certain　places；　that　it　must　have　overcome　the
resisting　powers　of　egoism；　of　listless　indolence　which　clings　to
tradition；　that　it　should　have　triumphed　over　the　eventual
obstruction　of　the　other　ethical　ideas；　which　tending　toward
other　goals；　often　may　be　an　obstacle；　that　it　should　have　become
a　dogma　of　ruling　parties　and　statesmen。　No；　it　must　also　have
evolved　the　qualities　of　a　practicable　formal　law；　it　must　have
reached　fixed　boundaries；　clear　characteristics；　determined
qualities　and　proportions；　it　must　have　traversed　the　long
journey　from　a　conception　of　right　to　a　clearly　defined　and
limited　provision　of　law；　the　fundamental　judgments　of　value　must
be　condensed　to　a　fixed　conventional　scale；　which；　as　a　simple
expression　of　complicated　and　manifold　conditions　still　grasps
their　average　justly。　In　short　the　mechanism　of　positive　law
limits　every　execution　of　material　justice。　We　have　our　formal
right　only　at　the　expense　of　a　partial　material　injustice。
　　　　A　demand　of　justice　in　rewarding　great　inventors　can　to…day
only　become　positive　law　in　patent　legislation；　or　in　the　public
arrangement　of　a　system　of　premiums；　in　which　the　method　of
execution　is　just　as　important　as　the　principle。　A　demand　of
justice　in　regard　to　a　progressive　income　tax　can　count　upon
sympathy　only　when　the　demand　is　based　on　definite　figures　which
correspond　to　the　average　feeling　of　right　of　to…day。　The　demand
of　justice　that　the　employer　should　provide　better　for　his
laborers　becomes　practicable；　when　we　demand　in　detail　and
definitely　that　the　employer　carry　this　or　that　responsibility
for　accidents；　that　he　put　such　and　such　a　contribution　into　the
benefit　fund；　that　he　accept　the　verdict　of　umpires　with　regard
to　wages。　That　the　laborers　should　share　in　the　profits　of　the
enterprise　can　be　discussed　as　a　legal　measure　only　when　definite
experience　shows　the　possibility　of　a　just　execution。　Otherwise
such　a　law；　like　many　other　well…meant　propositions　for　the
improvement　of　the　condition　of　the　lower　classes；　would；　in
consequence　of　the　violation　of　formal　justice；　lead　to
arbitrariness；　to　favoritism；　to　the　discontent　of　the　classes
concerned。　This　is　confirmed　by　all　deeper　knowledge　of　the
results　of　the　administration　of　our　poor　laws。　The　poor　law　is
the　most　important　piece　of　socialism　which　the　German　social
organization　contains。　It　is　a　piece　of　socialism　which　we　could
not　spare　for　the　time　being；　because　we　do　not　know　a　better
substitute；　nor　yet　how　to　meet　otherwise　by　more　perfect
institution　is　the　inevitable　demand　of　justice；　that　every
fellow…being　be　protected　from　starvation。　The　drawback　of　this
poor　law　is　the　absolute　impossibility　of　enforcing　it　in　a
formally　and　materially　just　way。　Arbitrariness；　chance；　red　tape
govern　it；　and　therefore　the　assistance　given　has　in　many　cases
such　unfavorable　psychological　effects；　leading　to　laziness　and
indifference。　As　long　as　the　organs　of　the　administration　do　not
reach　a　far　higher　perfection；　as　long　as　the　formal
possibilities　of　execution　are　not　quite　different；　most
socialistic　experiments　would　only　extend　the　consequences　of　our
poor　laws　to　large　areas　of　our　social　and　economic　organization。
　　　　But　we　must　never　forget　the　distinction　between　means　and
ends。　The　form　of　the　law　is　the　means；　justice；　however；　the
end。　We　may　perceive　that　laws　cannot　do　away　with　every
immorality；　cannot　effect　a　strictly　just　distribution　of
incomes；　that　the　ingenious　tricks　of　astute　and　selfish　business
men　flout　all　decency；　and　find　ways　to　slip　through　the　meshes
of　the　best　laws。　But　this　must　not　restrain　us　from　working　for
justice；　and　from　faith　in　its　victory。　Although　thousands　of
injustices　are　bound　to　occur　in　our　life；　our　best　possession
rests　on　the　idea　of　justice。　All　social　progress　depends　on
further　victories　of　justice。　By　demanding　a　just　distribution　of
incomes；　socialism　has　introduced　nothing　new；　but　has　in
contrast　to　the　errors　which　were　created　by　materialistic
epigones　in　a　short　period　of　so…called　philosophy　of
enlightenment；　only　returned　to　the　great　traditions　of　all
idealistic　social　philosophy。　The　error　of　socialism　was　simply
that　it　overlooked　the　difference　between　material　and　formal
justice；　as　well　as　the　significance　of　other　equally　justified
social　ideal　conceptions；　that　it　imagined　the　individual
conceptions　of　certain　idealists　of　what　is　just；　would　suffice
to　overthrow　suddenly　and　immediately　primeval　institutions。　With
its　crude　excrescences　it　returned　to　standards　of　justice　which
perhaps　correspond　to　the　first　stages　of　civilization；　certainly
to　rough　views；　but　not　to　refined　conceptions　of　higher
morality。
　　　　Socialism　can　teach　us　not　to　demand　a　false　justice；　it
should　never　hinder　us　from　fighting　for　a　true　justice。　History
tells　us　that　progress　has　usually　been　tedious；　it　shows　us　just
as　much　that　at　length　the　greatest　formal　difficulties　have　been
overcome；　that　especially　in　the　great　epochs　of　faith　in　ideals
which　rejuvenate　and　ennoble　men；　the　juster　right；　the　refined
morals　have　triumphed　over　the　powers　of　egoism；　of　sluggishness；
of　stupidity；　and　now　better　and　juster　institutions　have　grown
up。　There　was　a　time　when　the　demand　for　a　just　system　of　trade；
which　is　universally　conceded　to…day；　appeared　as　an　ideal　far　in
advance　of　the　times。　Robberies；　thefts；　frauds；　brawls　in　the
market…places；　extortions　of　gifts　were　the　older　forms　of
transferring　property。　Here　a　thousand　years'　work　in
civilization　has　developed；　in　connection　with　the　progress　of
reined　conceptions　of　justice；　the　institutions　of　law；　which
to…day　govern　and　bind　all　intercourse　as　a　matter　of　course。
　　　　The　leading　conceptions　in　this　work　of　civilization　in　the
past　and　present　do　naturally　not　relate　to　the　whole　society　and
all　its　purposes；　nor　to　all　qualities　of　men。　In　every　ordinary
barter　two　p