the evolution of modern medicine-第4章

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　man　to　nature；　and　really　was　his　religion。　He　had　no　idea　of　immutable　laws；　but　regarded　the　world　about　him　as　changeable　and　fickle　like　himself；　and　〃to　make　life　go　as　he　wished；　he　must　be　able　to　please　and　propitiate　or　to　coerce　these　forces　outside　himself。〃＇8＇

＇8＇　L。　Thorndike：　　The　Place　of　Magic　in　the　Intellectual　History　of　Europe；　New　York；　1905；　p。　29。


The　point　of　interest　to　us　is　that　in　the　Pyramid　Texts〃the　oldest　chapter　in　human　thinking　preserved　to　us；　the　remotest　reach　in　the　intellectual　history　of　man　which　we　are　now　able　to　discern〃＇9＇　one　of　their　six…fold　contents　relates　to　the　practice　of　magic。　A　deep　belief　existed　as　to　its　efficacy；　particularly　in　guiding　the　dead；　who　were　said　to　be　glorious　by　reason　of　mouths　equipped　with　the　charms；　prayers　and　ritual　of　the　Pyramid　Texts；　armed　with　which　alone　could　the　soul　escape　the　innumerable　dangers　and　ordeals　of　the　passage　through　another　world。　　Man　has　never　lost　his　belief　in　the　efficacy　of　magic；　in　the　widest　sense　of　the　term。　Only　a　very　few　of　the　most　intellectual　nations　have　escaped　from　its　shackles。　　Nobody　else　has　so　clearly　expressed　the　origins　and　relations　of　magic　as　Pliny　in　his　〃Natural　History。〃＇10＇　〃Now；　if　a　man　consider　the　thing　well；　no　marvaile　it　is　that　it　hath　continued　thus　in　so　great　request　and　authoritie；　for　it　is　the　onely　Science　which　seemeth　to　comprise　in　itselfe　three　possessions　besides；　which　have　the　command　and　rule　of　mans　mind　above　any　other　whatsoever。　For　to　begin　withall；　no　man　doubteth　but　that　Magicke　tooke　root　first；　and　proceeded　from　Physicke；　under　the　presence　of　maintaining　health；　curing；　and　preventing　diseases：　things　plausible　to　the　world；　crept　and　insinuated　farther　into　the　heart　of　man；　with　a　deepe　conceit　of　some　high　and　divine　matter　therein　more　than　ordinarie；　and　in　comparison　whereof；　all　other　Physicke　was　but　basely　accounted。　And　having　thus　made　way　and　entrance；　the　better　to　fortifie　it　selfe；　and　to　give　a　goodly　colour　and　lustre　to　those　fair　and　flattering　promises　of　things；　which　our　nature　is　most　given　to　hearken　after；　on　goeth　the　habite　also　and　cloake　of　religion：　　a　point；　I　may　tell　you；　that　even　in　these　daies　holdeth　captivate　the　spirit　of　man；　and　draweth　away　with　it　a　greater　part　of　the　world；　and　nothing　so　much。　But　not　content　with　this　successe　and　good　proceeding；　to　gather　more　strength　and　win　a　greater　name；　shee　entermingled　with　medicinable　receipts　and　religious　ceremonies；　the　skill　of　Astrologie　and　arts　Mathematicall；　presuming　upon　this；　That　all　men　by　nature　are　very　curious　and　desirous　to　know　their　future　fortunes；　and　what　shall　betide　them　hereafter；　persuading　themselves；　that　all　such　foreknowledge　dependeth　upon　the　course　and　influence　of　the　starres；　which　give　the　truest　and　most　certain　light　of　things　to　come。　　Being　thus　wholly　possessed　of　men；　and　having　their　senses　and　understanding　by　this　meanes　fast　ynough　bound　with　three　sure　chains；　no　marvell　if　this　art　grew　in　processe　of　time　to　such　an　head；　that　it　was　and　is　at　this　day　reputed　by　most　nations　of　the　earth　for　the　paragon　and　cheefe　of　all　sciences：　insomuch　as　the　mightie　kings　and　monarchs　of　the　Levant　are　altogether　ruled　and　governed　thereby。〃

＇9＇　Breasted：　　Development　of　Religion　and　Thought　in　Ancient　Egypt；　New　York；　1912；　p。　84。

＇10＇　The　Historie　of　the　World；　commonly　called　the　Naturall　Historie　of　C。　Plinius　Secundus；　translated　into　English　by　Philemon　Holland；　Doctor　in　Physieke；　London；　1601；　Vol。　II；　p。　371；　Bk。　XXX；　Chap。　I；　Sect。　1。


The　second　world…wide　practice　which　finds　its　earliest　record　among　the　Egyptians　is　the　use　secretions　and　parts　of　the　animal　body　as　medicine。　The　practice　was　one　of　great　antiquity　with　primitive　man；　but　the　papyri　already　mentioned　contain　the　earliest　known　records。　Saliva；　urine；　bile；　faeces；　various　parts　of　the　body；　dried　and　powdered；　worms；　insects；　snakes　were　important　ingredients　in　the　pharmacopoeia。　The　practice　became　very　widespread　throughout　the　ancient　world。　Its　extent　and　importance　may　be　best　gathered　from　chapters　VII　and　VIII　in　the　28th　book　of　Pliny's　〃Natural　History。〃　　Several　remedies　are　mentioned　as　derived　from　man；　others　from　the　elephant；　lion；　camel；　crocodile；　and　some　seventy…nine　are　prepared　from　the　hyaena。　　The　practice　was　widely　prevalent　throughout　the　Middle　Ages；　and　the　pharmacopoeia　of　the　seventeenth　and　even　of　the　eighteenth　century　contains　many　extraordinary　ingredients。　〃The　Royal　Pharmacopoeia〃　of　Moses　Charras　（London　ed。；　1678）；　the　most　scientific　work　of　the　day；　is　full　of　organotherapy　and　directions　for　the　preparation　of　medicines　from　the　most　loathsome　excretions。　A　curious　thing　is　that　with　the　discoveries　of　the　mummies　a　belief　arose　as　to　the　great　efficacy　of　powdered　mummy　in　various　maladies。　As　Sir　Thomas　Browne　remarks　in　his　〃Urn　Burial〃：　〃Mummy　has　become　merchandize。　　Mizraim　cures　wounds；　and　Pharaoh　is　sold　for　balsams。〃

One　formula　in　everyday　use　has　come　to　us　in　a　curious　way　from　the　Egyptians。　　In　the　Osiris　myth；　the　youthful　Horus　loses　an　eye　in　his　battle　with　Set。　　This　eye；　the　symbol　of　sacrifice；　became；　next　to　the　sacred　beetle；　the　most　common　talisman　of　the　country；　and　all　museums　are　rich　in　models　of　the　Horus　eye　in　glass　or　stone。

〃When　alchemy　or　chemistry；　which　had　its　cradle　in　Egypt；　and　derived　its　name　from　Khami；　an　old　title　for　this　country；　passed　to　the　hands　of　the　Greeks；　and　later　of　the　Arabs；　this　sign　passed　with　it。　It　was　also　adopted　to　some　extent　by　the　Gnostics　of　the　early　Christian　church　in　Egypt。　　In　a　cursive　form　it　is　found　in　mediaeval　translations　of　the　works　of　Ptolemy　the　astrologer；　as　the　sign　of　the　planet　Jupiter。　　As　such　it　was　placed　upon　horoscopes　and　upon　formula　containing　drugs　made　for　administration　to　the　body；　so　that　the　harmful　properties　of　these　drugs　might　be　removed　under　the　influence　of　the　lucky　planet。　At　present；　in　a　slightly　modified　form；　it　still　figures　at　the　top　of　prescriptions　written　daily　in　Great　Britain　（Rx）。〃＇11＇

＇11＇　John　D。　Comrie：　　Medicine　among　the　Assyrians　and　Egyptians　in　1500　B。C。；　Edinburgh　Medical　Journal；　1909；　n。　s。；　II；　119。


For　centuries　Egyptian　physicians　had　a　great　reputation；　and　in　the　Odyssey　（Bk。　IV）；　Polydamna；　the　wife　of　Thonis；　gives　medicinal　plants　to　Helen　in　Egypt〃a　country　producing　an　infinite　number　of　drugs　。　。　。　where　each　physician　possesses　knowledge　above　all　other　men。〃　　Jeremiah　（xlvi；　11）　refers　to　the　virgin　daughter　of　Egypt；　who　should　in　vain　use　many　medicines。　　Herodotus　tells　that　Darius　had　at　his　court　certain　Egyptians；　whom　he　reckoned　the　best　skilled　physicians　in　all　the　world；　and　he　makes　the　interesting　statement　that：　〃Medicine　is　practiced　among　them　on　a　plan　of　separation；　each　physician　treats　a　single　disorder；　and　no　more：　thus　the　country　swarms　with　medical　practitioners；　some　under　taking　to　cure　diseases　of　the　eye；　others　of　the　head；　others　again　of　the　teeth；　others　of　the　intestines；　and　some　those　which　are　not　local。〃＇12＇

＇12＇　The　History　of　Herodotus；　Blakesley's　ed。；　Bk。　II；　84。


A　remarkable　statement　is　made　by　Pliny；　in　the　discussion　upon　the　use　of　radishes；　which　are　said　to　cure　a　〃Phthisicke；〃　or　ulcer　of　the　lungs〃proofe　whereof　was　found　and　seen　in　AEgypt　by　occasion　that　the　KK。　there；　caused　dead　bodies　to　be　cut　up；　and　anatomies　to　be　made；　for　to　search　out　the　maladies　whereof　men　died。〃＇13＇

＇13　Pliny；　Holland's　translation；　Bk。　XIX；　Chap。　V；　Sect。　26。


The　study　of　the　anatomy　of　mummies　has　thrown　a　very　interesting　light　upon　the　diseases　of　the　ancient　Egyptians；　one　of　the　most　prevalent　of　which　appears　to　have　been　osteo…arthritis。　This　has　been　studied　by　Elliot　Smith；　Wood　Jones；　Ruffer　and　Rietti。　　The　majority　of　the　lesions　appear　to　have　been　the　common　osteo…arthritis；　which　involved　not　only　the　men；　but　many　of　the　pet　animals　kept　in　the　temples。　　In　a　much　higher　proportion　apparently　than　in　modern　days；　the　spinal　column　was　involved。　It　is　interesting　to　note　that　the　〃determinative〃　of　old　age　in　hieroglyphic　writing　is　the　picture　of　a　man　afflicted　with　arthritis　deformans。　Evidences　of　tuberculosis；　rickets　and　syphilis；　according　to　these　authors；　have　not　been　found。

A　study　of　the　internal　organs　has　been　made　by　Ruffer；　who　has　shown　that　arterio…sclerosis　with　calcification　was　a　common　disease　8500　years　ago；　and　he　holds　that　it　could　not　have　been　associated　with　hard　work　or　alcohol；　for　the　ancient　Egyptians　did　not　drink　spirits；　and　they　had　practically　the　same　hours　of　work　as　modern　Egyptians；　with　every　seventh　day　free。


ASSYRIAN　AND　BABYLONIAN　MEDICINE

OF　equally　great　importance　in　the　evolution　of　medicine　was　the　practically　contemporary　civilization　in　Mesopotamia。　　Science　here　reached　a　much　higher　stage　then　in　the　valley　of　the　Nile。　An　elaborate　scheme　of　the　universe　was　devised；　a　system　growing　out　of　the　Divine　Will；　and　a　recognition　for　the　first　time　of　a　law　guiding　and　controlling　heaven　and　earth　alike。　　Here；　too；　we　find　medicine　ancillary　to　religion。　Disease　was　due　to　evil　spirits　or　demons。　　〃These　'demons'invisible　to　the　naked　eye　were　the　precursors　of　the　modern　'germs'　and　'microbes；'　while　the　incantations　recited　by　the　priests　are　the　early　equivalents　of　the　physician's　prescriptions。　　There　were　different　incantations　for　different　diseases；　and　they　were　as　mysterious　to　the　masses　as　are　the　mystic　formulas　of　the　modern　physician　to　the　bewildered；　yet　trusting；　patient。　　Indeed；　their　mysterious　character　added　to　the　power　supposed　to　reside　in　the　incantations　for　driving　the　demons　away。　Medicinal　remedies　accompanied　the　recital　of　the　incantations；　but　despite　the　considerable　progress　made　by　such　nations　of　hoary　antiquity　as　the　Egyptians　and　Babylonians　in　the　diagnosis　and　treatment　of　common　diseases；　leading　in　time　to　the　development　of　an　extensive　pharmacology；　so　long　as　the　cure　of　disease　rested　with　the　priests；　the　recital　of　sacred　formulas；　together　with　rites　that　may　be　conveniently　grouped　under　the　head　of　sympathetic　magic；　was　regarded　as　equally　essential　with　the　taking　of　the　prescribed　remedies。〃＇14＇

＇14＇　Morris　Jastrow：　　The　Liver　in　Antiquity　and　the　Beginnings　of　Anatomy。　　Transactions　College　of　Physicians；　Philadelphia；　1907；　3。　s。；　XXIX；　117…138。


Three　points　of　interest　may　be　referred　to　in　connection　with　Babylonian　medicine。　　Our　first　recorded　observations　on　anatomy　are　in　connection　with　the　art　of　divination　the　study　of　the　future　by　the　interpretation　of　certain　signs。　The　student　recognized　two　divisions　of　divination　the　involuntary；　dealing　with　the　interpretation　of　signs　forced　upon　our　attention；　such　as　the　phenomena　of　the　heavens；　dreams；　etc。；　and　voluntary　divination；　the　seeking　of　signs；　more　particularly　through　the　inspection　of　sacrificial　animals。　This　method　reached　an　extraordinary　development　among　the　Babylonians；　and　the　cult　spread　to　the　Etruscans；　Hebrews；　and　later　to　the　Greeks　and　Romans。

Of　all　the　organs　inspected　in　a　sacrificial　animal　the　liver；　from　its　size；　position　and　richness　in　blood；　impr