the evolution of modern medicine-第7章

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＇25＇　See　Luke　the　Physician；　by　Harnack；　English　ed。；　1907；　and　W。　K。　Hobart；　The　Medical　Language　of　St。　Luke；　1882。


CHINESE　AND　JAPANESE　MEDICINE

CHINESE　medicine　illustrates　the　condition　at　which　a　highly　intellectual　people　may　arrive；　among　whom　thought　and　speculation　were　restricted　by　religious　prohibitions。　Perhaps　the　chief　interest　in　its　study　lies　in　the　fact　that　we　may　see　today　the　persistence　of　views　about　disease　similar　to　those　which　prevailed　in　ancient　Egypt　and　Babylonia。　　The　Chinese　believe　in　a　universal　animism；　all　parts　being　animated　by　gods　and　spectres；　and　devils　swarm　everywhere　in　numbers　incalculable。　The　universe　was　spontaneously　created　by　the　operation　of　its　Tao；　〃composed　of　two　souls；　the　Yang　and　the　Yin；　the　Yang　represents　light；　warmth；　production；　and　life；　as　also　the　celestial　sphere　from　which　all　those　blessings　emanate；　the　Yin　is　darkness；　cold；　death；　and　the　earth；　which；　unless　animated　by　the　Yang　or　heaven；　is　dark；　cold；　dead。　The　Yang　and　the　Yin　are　divided　into　an　infinite　number　of　spirits　respectively　good　and　bad；　called　shen　and　kwei；　every　man　and　every　living　being　contains　a　shen　and　a　kwei；　infused　at　birth；　and　departing　at　death；　to　return　to　the　Yang　and　the　Yin。　　Thus　man　with　his　dualistic　soul　is　a　microcosmos；　born　from　the　Macrocosmos　spontaneously。　　Even　every　object　is　animated；　as　well　as　the　Universe　of　which　it　is　a　part。〃＇26＇

＇26＇　J。　J。　M。　de　Groot：　　Religious　System　of　China；　Vol。　VI；　Leyden；　1910；　p。　929。


In　the　animistic　religion　of　China；　the　Wu　represented　a　group　of　persons　of　both　sexes；　who　wielded；　with　respect　to　the　world　of　spirits；　capacities　and　powers　not　possessed　by　the　rest　of　men。　Many　practitioners　of　Wu　were　physicians　who；　in　addition　to　charms　and　enchantments；　used　death…banishing　medicinal　herbs。　Of　great　antiquity；　Wu…ism　has　changed　in　some　ways　its　outward　aspect；　but　has　not　altered　its　fundamental　characters。　　The　Wu；　as　exorcising　physicians　and　practitioners　of　the　medical　art；　may　be　traced　in　classical　literature　to　the　time　of　Confucius。　In　addition　to　charms　and　spells；　there　were　certain　famous　poems　which　were　repeated；　one　of　which；　by　Han　Yu；　of　the　T'ang　epoch；　had　an　extraordinary　vogue。　De　Groot　says　that　the　〃Ling；〃　or　magical　power　of　this　poem　must　have　been　enormous；　seeing　that　its　author　was　a　powerful　mandarin；　and　also　one　of　the　loftiest　intellects　China　has　produced。　This　poetic　febrifuge　is　translated　in　full　by　de　Groot　（VI；　1054…1055）；　and　the　demon　of　fever；　potent　chiefly　in　the　autumn；　is　admonished　to　begone　to　the　clear　and　limpid　waters　of　the　deep　river。

In　the　High　Medical　College　at　Court；　in　the　T'ang　Dynasty；　there　were　four　classes　of　Masters；　attached　to　its　two　High　Medical　Chiefs：　　Masters　of　Medicine；　of　Acupuncture；　of　Manipulation；　and　two　Masters　for　Frustration　by　means　of　Spells。

Soothsaying　and　exorcism　may　be　traced　far　back　to　the　fifth　and　sixth　centuries　B。C。

In　times　of　epidemic　the　specialists　of　Wu…ism；　who　act　as　seers；　soothsayers　and　exorcists；　engage　in　processions；　stripped　to　the　waist；　dancing　in　a　frantic；　delirious　state；　covering　themselves　with　blood　by　means　of　prick…balls；　or　with　needles　thrust　through　their　tongues；　or　sitting　or　stretching　themselves　on　nail　points　or　rows　of　sword　edges。　　In　this　way　they　frighten　the　spectres　of　disease。　They　are　nearly　all　young；　and　are　spoken　of　as　〃divining　youths；〃　and　they　use　an　exorcising　magic　based　on　the　principle　that　legions　of　spectres　prone　to　evil　live　in　the　machine　of　the　world。　（De　Groot；　VI；　983…985。）

The　Chinese　believe　that　it　is　the　Tao；　or　〃Order　of　the　Universe；〃　which　affords　immunity　from　evil；　and　according　to　whether　or　no　the　birth　occurred　in　a　beneficent　year；　dominated　by　four　double　cyclical　characters；　the　horoscope　is　〃heavy〃　or　〃light。〃　Those　with　light　horoscopes　are　specially　prone　to　incurable　complaints；　but　much　harm　can　be　averted　if　such　an　individual　be　surrounded　with　exorcising　objects；　if　he　be　given　proper　amulets　to　wear　and　proper　medicines　to　swallow；　and　by　selecting　for　him　auspicious　days　and　hours。

Two　or　three　special　points　may　be　referred　to。　　The　doctrine　of　the　pulse　reached　such　extraordinary　development　that　the　whole　practice　of　the　art　centred　round　its　different　characters。　There　were　scores　of　varieties；　which　in　complication　and　detail　put　to　confusion　the　complicated　system　of　some　of　the　old　Graeco…Roman　writers。　　The　basic　idea　seems　to　have　been　that　each　part　and　organ　had　its　own　proper　pulse；　and　just　as　in　a　stringed　instrument　each　chord　has　its　own　tone；　so　in　the　human　body；　if　the　pulses　were　in　harmony；　it　meant　health；　if　there　was　discord；　it　meant　disease。　　These　Chinese　views　reached　Europe　in　the　seventeenth　and　eighteenth　centuries；　and　there　is　a　very　elaborate　description　of　them　in　Floyer's　well…known　book。＇27＇　And　the　idea　of　harmony　in　the　pulse　is　met　with　into　the　eighteenth　century。

＇27＇　Sir　John　Floyer：　　The　Physician's　Pulse　Watch；　etc。；　London；　1707。


Organotherapy　was　as　extensively　practiced　in　China　as　in　Egypt。　Parts　of　organs；　various　secretions　and　excretions　are　very　commonly　used。　　One　useful　method　of　practice　reached　a　remarkable　development；　viz。；　the　art　of　acupuncturethe　thrusting　of　fine　needles　more　or　less　deeply　into　the　affected　part。　There　are　some　388　spots　on　the　body　in　which　acupuncture　could　be　performed；　and　so　well　had　long　experience　taught　them　as　to　the　points　of　danger；　that　the　course　of　the　arteries　may　be　traced　by　the　tracts　that　are　avoided。　The　Chinese　practiced　inoculation　for　smallpox　as　early　as　the　eleventh　century。

Even　the　briefest　sketch　of　the　condition　of　Chinese　medicine　leaves　the　impression　of　the　appalling　stagnation　and　sterility　that　may　afflict　a　really　intelligent　people　for　thousands　of　years。　It　is　doubtful　if　they　are　today　in　a　very　much　more　advanced　condition　than　were　the　Egyptians　at　the　time　when　the　Ebers　Papyrus　was　written。　From　one　point　of　view　it　is　an　interesting　experiment；　as　illustrating　the　state　in　which　a　people　may　remain　who　have　no　knowledge　of　anatomy；　physiology　or　pathology。

Early　Japanese　medicine　has　not　much　to　distinguish　it　from　the　Chinese。　　At　first　purely　theurgic；　the　practice　was　later　characterized　by　acupuncture　and　a　refined　study　of　the　pulse。　It　has　an　extensive　literature；　largely　based　upon　the　Chinese；　and　extending　as　far　back　as　the　beginning　of　the　Christian　era。　European　medicine　was　introduced　by　the　Portuguese　and　the　Dutch；　whose　〃factory〃　or　〃company〃　physicians　were　not　without　influence　upon　practice。　　An　extraordinary　stimulus　was　given　to　the　belief　in　European　medicine　by　a　dissection　made　by　Mayeno　in　1771　demonstrating　the　position　of　the　organs　as　shown　in　the　European　anatomical　tables；　and　proving　the　Chinese　figures　to　be　incorrect。　The　next　day　a　translation　into　Japanese　of　the　anatomical　work　of　Kulmus　was　begun；　and　from　its　appearance　in　1773　may　be　dated　the　commencement　of　reforms　in　medicine。　In　1793；　the　work　of　de　Gorter　on　internal　medicine　was　translated；　and　it　is　interesting　to　know　that　before　the　so…called　〃opening　of　Japan〃　many　European　works　on　medicine　had　been　published。　In　1857；　a　Dutch　medical　school　was　started　in　Yedo。　　Since　the　political　upheaval　in　1868；　Japan　has　made　rapid　progress　in　scientific　medicine；　and　its　institutions　and　teachers　are　now　among　the　best　known　in　the　world。＇28＇

＇28＇　See　Y。　Fujikawa；　Geschichte　der　Medizin　in　Japan；　Tokyo；　1911。



CHAPTER　II

GREEK　MEDICINE

OGRAIAE　gentis　decus！　let　us　sing　with　Lucretius；　one　of　the　great　interpreters　of　Greek　thought。　　How　grand　and　how　true　is　his　paean！

　Out　of　the　night；　out　of　the　blinding　night　Thy　beacon　flashes；hail；　beloved　light　Of　Greece　and　Grecian；　hail；　for　in　the　mirk　Thou　cost　reveal　each　valley　and　each　height。

Thou　art　my　leader；　and　the　footprints　shine；　Wherein　I　plant　my　own。。。。

　*　*　*　*　*

The　world　was　shine　to　read；　and　having　read；　Before　thy　children's　eyes　thou　didst　outspread　The　fruitful　page　of　knowledge；　all　the　wealth　Of　wisdom；　all　her　plenty　for　their　bread。

＇Bk。　III。Translated　by　D。　A。　Slater。＇


Let　us　come　out　of　the　murky　night　of　the　East；　heavy　with　phantoms；　into　the　bright　daylight　of　the　West；　into　the　company　of　men　whose　thoughts　made　our　thoughts；　and　whose　ways　made　our　waysthe　men　who　first　dared　to　look　on　nature　with　the　clear　eyes　of　the　mind。

Browning's　famous　poem；　〃Childe　Roland　to　the　Dark　Tower　Came；〃　is　an　allegory　of　the　pilgrimage　of　man　through　the　dark　places　of　the　earth；　on　a　dismal　path　beset　with　demons；　and　strewn　with　the　wreckage　of　generations　of　failures。　In　his　ear　tolled　the　knell　of　all　the　lost　adventurers；　his　peers；　all　lost；　lost　within　sight　of　the　dark　Tower　itself

The　round　squat　turret；　blind　as　the　fool's　heart；　Built　of　brown　stone；　without　a　counterpart　In　the　whole　world。

lost　in　despair　at　an　all…encircling　mystery。　　Not　so　the　Greek　Childe　Roland　who　set　the　slug…horn　to　his　lips　and　blew　a　challenge。　　Neither　Shakespeare　nor　Browning　tells　us　what　happened；　and　the　old　legend；　Childe　Roland；　is　the　incarnation　of　the　Greek　spirit；　the　young；　light…hearted　master　of　the　modern　world；　at　whose　trumpet　blast　the　dark　towers　of　ignorance；　superstition　and　deceit　have　vanished　into　thin　air；　as　the　baseless　fabric　of　a　dream。　　Not　that　the　jeering　phantoms　have　flown！　They　still　beset；　in　varied　form；　the　path　of　each　generation；　but　the　Achaian　Childe　Roland　gave　to　man　self…confidence；　and　taught　him　the　lesson　that　nature's　mysteries；　to　be　solved；　must　be　challenged。　On　a　portal　of　one　of　the　temples　of　Isis　in　Egypt　was　carved：　〃I　am　whatever　hath　been；　is；　or　ever　will　be；　and　my　veil　no　man　has　yet　lifted。〃

The　veil　of　nature　the　Greek　lifted　and　herein　lies　his　value　to　us。　What　of　this　Genius？　　How　did　it　arise　among　the　peoples　of　the　AEgean　Sea？　　Those　who　wish　to　know　the　rock　whence　science　was　hewn　may　read　the　story　told　in　vivid　language　by　Professor　Gomperz　in　his　〃Greek　Thinkers；〃　the　fourth　volume　of　which　has　recently　been　published　（Murray；　1912；　Scribner；　1912）。　In　1912；　there　was　published　a　book　by　one　of　the　younger　Oxford　teachers；　〃The　Greek　Genius　and　Its　Meaning　to　Us；〃＇1＇　from　which　those　who　shrink　from　the　serious　study　of　Gomperz'　four　volumes　may　learn　something　of　the　spirit　of　Greece。　　Let　me　quote　a　few　lines　from　his　introduction：

＇1＇　By　R。　W。　Livingstone；　Clarendon　Press；　Oxford；　1912　＇2d　ed。；　revised；　1915＇。


〃Europe　has　nearly　four　million　square　miles；　Lancashire　has　1；700；　Attica　has　700。　　Yet　this　tiny　country　has　given　us　an　art　which　we；　with　it　and　all　that　the　world　has　done　since　it　for　our　models；　have　equalled　perhaps；　but　not　surpassed。　　It　has　given　us　the　staple　of　our　vocabulary　in　every　domain　of　thought　and　knowledge。　　Politics；　tyranny；　democracy；　anarchism；　philosophy；　physiology；　geology；　historythese　are　all　Greek　words。　　It　has　seized　and　up　to　the　present　day　kept　hold　of　our　higher　education。　　It　has　exercised　an　unfailing　fascination；　even　on　minds　alien　or　hostile。　　Rome　took　her　culture　thence。　Young　Romans　completed　their　education　in　the　Greek　schools。。。。　And　so　it　was　with　natures　less