the fathers of the constitution-第16章

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ive　still　further　powers　to　the　President；　such　as　the　making　of　treaties　and　the　appointing　of　ambassadors　and　judges；　although　the　advice　and　consent　of　the　Senate　was　required；　and　in　the　case　of　treaties　two…thirds　of　the　members　present　must　consent。　The　presidency　was　frankly　an　experiment；　the　success　of　which　would　depend　largely　upon　the　first　election；　yet　no　one　seems　to　have　been　anxious　about　the　first　choice　of　chief　magistrate；　and　the　reason　is　not　far　to　seek。　From　the　moment　the　members　agreed　that　there　should　be　a　single　executive　they　also　agreed　upon　the　man　for　the　position。　Just　as　Washington　had　been　chosen　unanimously　to　preside　over　the　Convention；　so　it　was　generally　accepted　that　he　would　be　the　first　head　of　the　new　state。　Such　at　least　was　the　trend　of　conversation　and　even　of　debate　on　the　floor　of　the　Convention。　It　indicates　something　of　the　conception　of　the　office　prevailing　at　the　time　that　Washington；　when　he　became　President；　is　said　to　have　preferred　the　title；　〃His　High　Mightiness；　the　President　of　the　United　States　and　Protector　of　their　Liberties。〃　The　members　of　the　Convention　were　plainly　growing　tired　and　there　are　evidences　of　haste　in　the　work　of　the　last　few　days。　There　was　a　tendency　to　ride　rough…shod　over　those　whose　temperaments　forced　them　to　demand　modifications　in　petty　matters。　This　precipitancy　gave　rise　to　considerable　dissatisfaction　and　led　several　delegates　to　declare　that　they　would　not　sign　the　completed　document。　But　on　the　whole　the　sentiment　of　the　Convention　was　overwhelmingly　favorable。　Accordingly　on　Saturday；　the　8th　of　September；　a　new　committee　was　appointed；　to　consist　of　five　members；　whose　duty　it　was　〃to　revise　the　stile　of　and　arrange　the　articles　which　had　been　agreed　to　by　the　House。〃　The　committee　was　chosen　by　ballot　and　was　made　up　exclusively　of　friends　of　the　new　Constitution：　Doctor　Johnson　of　Connecticut；　Alexander　Hamilton；　who　had　returned　to　Philadelphia　to　help　in　finishing　the　work；　Gouverneur　Morris；　James　Madison；　and　Rufus　King。　On　Wednesday　the　twelfth；　the　Committee　made　its　report；　the　greatest　credit　for　which　is　probably　to　be　given　to　Morris；　whose　powers　of　expression　were　so　greatly　admired。　Another　day　was　spent　in　waiting　for　the　report　to　be　printed。　But　on　Thursday　this　was　ready；　and　three　days　were　devoted　to　going　over　carefully　each　article　and　section　and　giving　the　finishing　touches。　By　Saturday　the　work　of　the　Convention　was　brought　to　a　close；　and　the　Constitution　was　then　ordered　to　be　engrossed。　On　Monday；　the　17th　of　September；　the　Convention　met　for　the　last　time。　A　few　of　those　present　being　unwilling　to　sign；　Gouverneur　Morris　again　cleverly　devised　a　form　which　would　make　the　action　appear　to　be　unanimous：　〃Done　in　Convention　by　the　unanimous　consent　of　the　states　present　。　。　。　in　witness　whereof　we　have　hereunto　subscribed　our　names。〃　Thirty…nine　delegates；　representing　twelve　States；　then　signed　the　Constitution。　When　Charles　Biddle　of　Philadelphia；　who　was　acquainted　with　most　of　the　members　of　the　Convention；　wrote　his　〃Autobiography；〃　which　was　published　in　1802；　he　declared　that　for　his　part　he　considered　the　government　established　by　the　Constitution　to　be　〃the　best　in　the　world；　and　as　perfect　as　any　human　form　of　government　can　be。〃　But　he　prefaced　that　declaration　with　a　statement　that　some　of　the　best　informed　members　of　the　Federal　Convention　had　told　him　〃they　did　not　believe　a　single　member　was　perfectly　satisfied　with　the　Constitution；　but　they　believed　it　was　the　best　they　could　ever　agree　upon；　and　that　it　was　infinitely　better　to　have　such　a　one　than　break　up　without　fixing　on　some　form　of　government；　which　I　believe　at　one　time　it　was　expected　they　would　have　done。〃　One　of　the　outstanding　characteristics　of　the　members　of　the　Federal　Convention　was　their　practical　sagacity。　They　had　a　very　definite　object　before　them。　No　matter　how　much　the　members　might　talk　about　democracy　in　theory　or　about　ancient　confederacies；　when　it　came　to　action　they　did　not　go　outside　of　their　own　experience。　The　Constitution　was　devised　to　correct　well…known　defects　and　it　contained　few　provisions　which　had　not　been　tested　by　practical　political　experience。　Before　the　Convention　met；　some　of　the　leading　men　in　the　country　had　prepared　lists　of　the　defects　which　existed　in　the　Articles　of　Confederation；　and　in　the　Constitution　practically　every　one　of　these　defects　was　corrected　and　by　means　which　had　already　been　tested　in　the　States　and　under　the　Articles　of　Confederation。

CHAPTER　VIII。　THE　UNION　ESTABLISHED　The　course　of　English　history　shops　that　Anglo…Saxon　tradition　is　strongly　in　favor　of　observing　precedents　and　of　trying　to　maintain　at　least　the　form　of　law；　even　in　revolutions。　When　the　English　people　found　it　impossible　to　bear　with　James　II　and　made　it　so　uncomfortable　for　him　that　he　fled　the　country；　they　shifted　the　responsibility　from　their　own　shoulders　by　charging　him　with　〃breaking　the　original　Contract　between　King　and　People。〃　When　the　Thirteen　Colonies　had　reached　the　point　where　they　felt　that　they　must　separate　from　England；　their　spokesman；　Thomas　Jefferson；　found　the　necessary　justification　in　the　fundamental　compact　of　the　first　settlers　〃in　the　wilds　of　America〃　where　〃the　emigrants　thought　proper　to　adopt　that　system　of　laws　under　which　they　had　hitherto　lived　in　the　mother　country〃；　and　in　the　Declaration　of　Independence　he　charged　the　King　of　Great　Britain　with　〃repeated　injuries　and　usurpations　all　having　in　direct　object　the　establishment　of　an　absolute　Tyranny　over　these　States。〃　And　so　it　was　with　the　change　to　the　new　form　of　government　in　the　United　States；　which　was　accomplished　only　by　disregarding　the　forms　prescribed　in　the　Articles　of　Confederation　and　has　been　called；　therefore；　〃the　Revolution　of　1789。〃　From　the　outset　the　new　constitution　was　placed　under　the　sanction　of　the　old。　The　movement　began　with　an　attempt；　outwardly　at　least；　to　revise　the　Articles　of　Confederation　and　in　that　form　was　authorized　by　Congress。　The　first　breach　with　the　past　was　made　when　the　proposal　in　the　Virginia　Resolutions　was　accepted　that　amendments　made　by　the　Convention　in　the　Articles　of　Confederation　should　be　submitted　to　assemblies　chosen　by　the　people　instead　of　to　the　legislatures　of　the　separate　States。　This　was　the　more　readily　accepted　because　it　was　believed　that　ratification　by　the　legislatures　would　result　in　the　formation　of　a　treaty　rather　than　in　a　working　instrument　of　government。　The　next　step　was　to　prevent　the　work　of　the　Convention　from　meeting　the　fate　of　all　previous　amendments　to　the　Articles　of　Confederation；　which　had　required　the　consent　of　every　State　in　the　Union。　At　the　time　the　committee　of　detail　made　its　report；　the　Convention　was　ready　to　agree　that　the　consent　of　all　the　States　was　not　necessary；　and　it　eventually　decided　that；　when　ratified　by　the　conventions　of　nine　States；　the　Constitution　should　go　into　effect　between　the　States　so　ratifying。　It　was　not　within　the　province　of　the　Convention　to　determine　what　the　course　of　procedure　should　be　in　the　individual　States；　so　it　simply　transmitted　the　Constitution　to　Congress　and　in　an　accompanying　document；　which　significantly　omitted　any　request　for　the　approval　of　Congress；　strongly　expressed　the　opinion　that　the　Constitution　should　〃be　submitted　to　a　convention　of　delegates　chosen　in　each　state　by　the　people　thereof。〃　This　was　nothing　less　than　indirect　ratification　by　the　people；　and；　since　it　was　impossible　to　foretell　in　advance　which　of　the　States　would　or　would　not　ratify；　the　original　draft　of　〃We；　the　People　of　the　States　of　New　Hampshire；　Massachusetts；　Rhode　Island；　。　。　。〃　was　changed　to　the　phrase　〃We；　the　People　of　the　United　States。〃　No　man　of　that　day　could　imagine　how　significant　this　change　would　appear　in　the　light　of　later　history。　Congress　did　not　receive　the　new　Constitution　enthusiastically；　yet　after　a　few　days'　discussion　it　unanimously　voted；　eleven　States　being　present；　that　the　recommendations　of　the　Convention　should　be　followed；　and　accordingly　sent　the　document　to　the　States；　but　without　a　word　of　approval　or　disapproval。　On　the　whole　the　document　was　well　received；　especially　as　it　was　favored　by　the　upper　class；　who　had　the　ability　and　the　opportunity　for　expression　and　were　in　a　position　to　make　themselves　heard。　For　a　time　it　looked　as　if　the　Constitution　would　be　readily　adopted。　The　contest　over　the　Constitution　in　the　States　is　usually　taken　as　marking　the　beginning　of　the　two　great　national　political　parties　in　the　United　States。　This　was；　indeed；　in　a　way　the　first　great　national　question　that　could　cause　such　a　division。　There　had　been；　to　be　sure；　Whigs　and　Tories　in　America；　reproducing　British　parties；　but　when　the　trouble　with　the　mother　country　began；　the　successive　congresses　of　delegates　were　recognized　and　attended　only　by　the　so…called　American　Whigs；　and　after　the　Declaration　of　Independence　the　name　of　Tory；　became　a　reproach；　so　that　with　the　end　of　the　war　the　Tory　party　disappeared。　After　the　Revolution　there　were　local　parties　in　the　various　States；　divided　on　one　and　another　question；　such　as　that　of　hard　and　soft　money；　and　these　issues　had　coincided　in　different　States；　but　they　were　in　no　sense　national　parties　with　organizations；　platforms；　and　leaders；　they　were　purely　local；　and　the　followers　of　one　or　the　other　would　have　denied　that　they　were　anything　else　than　Whigs。　But　a　new　issue　was　now　raised。　The　Whig　party　split　in　two；　new　leaders　appeared；　and　the　elements　gathered　in　two　main　divisionsthe　Federalists　advocating；　and　the　Anti…Federalists　opposing；　the　adoption　of　the　new　Constitution。　There　were　differences　of　opinion　over　all　the　questions　which　had　led　to　the　calling　of　the　Federal　Convention　and　the　framing　of　the　Constitution　and　so　there　was　inevitably　a　division　upon　the　result　of　the　Convention's　work。　There　were　those　who　wanted　national　authority　for　the　suppression　of　disorder　and　of　what　threatened　to　be　anarchy　throughout　the　Union；　and　on　the　other　hand　there　were　those　who　opposed　a　strongly　organized　government　through　fear　of　its　destroying　liberty。　Especially　debtors　and　creditors　took　opposite　sides；　and　most　of　the　people　in　the　United　States　could　have　been　brought　under　one　or　the　other　category。　The　former　favored　a　system　of　government　and　legislation　which　would　tend　to　relieve　or　postpone　the　payment　of　debts；　and；　as　that　relief　would　come　more　readily　from　the　State　Governments；　they　were　naturally　the　friends　of　State　rights　and　State　authority　and　were　opposed　to　any　enlargement　of　the　powers　of　the　Federal　Government。　On　the　other　hand；　were　those　who　felt　the　necessity　of　preserving　inviolate　every　private　and　public　obligation　and　who　saw　that　the　separate　power　of　the　States　could　not　accomplish　what　was　necessary　to　sustain　both　public　and　private　credit；　they　were　disposed　to　use　the　resources　of　the　Union　and　accordingly　to　favor　the　strengthening　of　the　national　government。　In　nearly　every　State　there　was　a　struggle　between　these　classes。　In　Philadelphia　and　the　neighborhood　there　was　great　enthusiasm　for　the　new　Constitution。　Almost　simultaneously　with　the　action　by　Congress；　and　before　notification　of　it　h