wealbk03-第4章

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　　　　　In　other　parts　of　Europe；　after　it　was　found　convenient　to

secure　tenants　both　against　heirs　and　purchasers；　the　term　of

their　security　was　still　limited　to　a　very　short　period；　in

France；　for　example；　to　nine　years　from　the　commencement　of　the

lease。　It　has　in　that　country；　indeed；　been　lately　extended　to

twenty…seven；　a　period　still　too　short　to　encourage　the　tenant　to

make　the　most　important　improvements。　The　proprietors　of　land

were　anciently　the　legislators　of　every　part　of　Europe。　The　laws

relating　to　land；　therefore；　were　all　calculated　for　what　they

supposed　the　interest　of　the　proprietor。　It　was　for　his　interest；

they　had　imagined；　that　no　lease　granted　by　any　of　his

predecessors　should　hinder　him　from　enjoying；　during　a　long　term

of　years；　the　full　value　of　his　land。　Avarice　and　injustice　are

always　short…sighted；　and　they　did　not　foresee　how　much　this

regulation　must　obstruct　improvement；　and　thereby　hurt　in　the

long…run　the　real　interest　of　the　landlord。

　　　　　The　farmers　too；　besides　paying　the　rent；　were　anciently；　it

was　supposed；　bound　to　perform　a　great　number　of　services　to　the

landlord；　which　were　seldom　either　specified　in　the　lease；　or

regulated　by　any　precise　rule；　but　by　the　use　and　wont　of　the

manor　or　barony。　These　services；　therefore；　being　almost　entirely

arbitrary；　subjected　the　tenant　to　many　vexations。　In　Scotland

the　abolition　of　all　services　not　precisely　stipulated　in　the

lease　has　in　the　course　of　a　few　years　very　much　altered　for　the

better　the　condition　of　the　yeomanry　of　that　country。

　　　　　The　public　services　to　which　the　yeomanry　were　bound　were

not　less　arbitrary　than　the　private　ones。　To　make　and　maintain

the　high　roads；　a　servitude　which　still　subsists；　I　believe；

everywhere；　though　with　different　degrees　of　oppression　in

different　countries；　was　not　the　only　one。　When　the　king's

troops；　when　his　household　or　his　officers　of　any　kind　passed

through　any　part　of　the　country；　the　yeomanry　were　bound　to

provide　them　with　horses；　carriages；　and　provisions；　at　a　price

regulated　by　the　purveyor。　Great　Britain　is；　I　believe；　the　only

monarchy　in　Europe　where　the　oppression　of　purveyance　has　been

entirely　abolished。　It　still　subsists　in　France　and　Germany。

　　　　　The　public　taxes　to　which　they　were　subject　were　as

irregular　and　oppressive　as　the　services。　The　ancient　lords；

though　extremely　unwilling　to　grant　themselves　any　pecuniary　aid

to　their　sovereign；　easily　allowed　him　to　tallage；　as　they　called

it　their　tenants；　and　had　not　knowledge　enough　to　foresee　how

much　this　must　in　the　end　affect　their　own　revenue。　The　taille；

as　it　still　subsists　in　France；　may　serve　as　an　example　of　those

ancient　tallages。　It　is　a　tax　upon　the　supposed　profits　of　the

farmer；　which　they　estimate　by　the　stock　that　he　has　upon　the

farm。　It　is　his　interest；　therefore；　to　appear　to　have　as　little

as　possible；　and　consequently　to　employ　as　little　as　possible　in

its　cultivation；　and　none　in　its　improvement。　Should　any　stock

happen　to　accumulate　in　the　hands　of　a　French　farmer；　the　taille

is　almost　equal　to　a　prohibition　of　its　ever　being　employed　upon

the　land。　This　tax；　besides；　is　supposed　to　dishonour　whoever　is

subject　to　it；　and　to　degrade　him　below；　not　only　the　rank　of　a

gentleman；　but　that　of　a　burgher；　and　whoever　rents　the　lands　of

another　becomes　subject　to　it。　No　gentleman；　nor　even　any　burgher

who　has　stock；　will　submit　to　this　degradation。　This　tax；

therefore；　not　only　hinders　the　stock　which　accumulates　upon　the

land　from　being　employed　in　its　improvement；　but　drives　away　an

other　stock　from　it。　The　ancient　tenths　and　fifteenths；　so　usual

in　England　in　former　times；　seem；　so　far　as　they　affected　the

land；　to　have　been　taxes　of　the　same　nature　with　the　taille。

　　　　　Under　all　these　discouragements；　little　improvement　could　be

expected　from　the　occupiers　of　land。　That　order　of　people；　with

all　the　liberty　and　security　which　law　can　give；　must　always

improve　under　great　disadvantages。　The　farmer；　compared　with　the

proprietor；　is　as　a　merchant　who　trades　with　borrowed　money

compared　with　one　who　trades　with　his　own。　The　stock　of　both　may

improve；　but　that　of　the　one；　with　only　equal　good　conduct；　must

always　improve　more　slowly　than　that　of　the　other；　on　account　of

the　large　share　of　the　profits　which　is　consumed　by　the　interest

of　the　loan。　The　lands　cultivated　by　the　farmer　must；　in　the　same

manner；　with　only　equal　good　conduct；　be　improved　more　slowly

than　those　cultivated　by　the　proprietor；　on　account　of　the　large

share　of　the　produce　which　is　consumed　in　the　rent；　and　which；

had　the　farmer　been　proprietor；　he　might　have　employed　in　the

further　improvement　of　the　land。　The　station　of　a　farmer　besides

is；　from　the　nature　of　things；　inferior　to　that　of　a　proprietor。

Through　the　greater　part　of　Europe　the　yeomanry　are　regarded　as

an　inferior　rank　of　people；　even　to　the　better　sort　of　tradesmen

and　mechanics；　and　in　all　parts　of　Europe　to　the　great　merchants

and　master　manufacturers。　It　can　seldom　happen；　therefore；　that　a

man　of　any　considerable　stock　should　quit　the　superior　in　order

to　place　himself　in　an　inferior　station。　Even　in　the　present

state　of　Europe；　therefore；　little　stock　is　likely　to　go　from　any

other　profession　to　the　improvement　of　land　in　the　way　of

farming。　More　does　perhaps　in　Great　Britain　than　in　any　other

country；　though　even　there　the　great　stocks　which　are；　in　some

places；　employed　in　farming　have　generally　been　acquired　by

farming；　the　trade；　perhaps；　in　which　of　all　others　stock　is

commonly　acquired　most　slowly。　After　small　proprietors；　however；

rich　and　great　farmers　are；　in　every　country；　the　principal

improvers。　There　are　more　such　perhaps　in　England　than　in　any

other　European　monarchy。　In　the　republican　governments　of　Holland

and　of　Berne　in　Switzerland；　the　farmers　are　said　to　be　not

inferior　to　those　of　England。

　　　　　The　ancient　policy　of　Europe　was；　over　and　above　all　this；

unfavourable　to　the　improvement　and　cultivation　of　land；　whether

carried　on　by　the　proprietor　or　by　the　farmer；　first；　by　the

general　prohibition　of　the　exportation　of　corn　without　a　special

licence；　which　seems　to　have　been　a　very　universal　regulation；

and　secondly；　by　the　restraints　which　were　laid　upon　the　inland

commerce；　not　only　of　corn；　but　of　almost　every　other　part　of　the

produce　of　the　farm　by　the　absurd　laws　against　engrossers；

regrators；　and　forestallers；　and　by　the　privileges　of　fairs　and

markets。　It　has　already　been　observed　in　what　manner　the

prohibition　of　the　exportation　of　corn；　together　with　some

encouragement　given　to　the　importation　of　foreign　corn；

obstructed　the　cultivation　of　ancient　Italy；　naturally　the　most

fertile　country　in　Europe；　and　at　that　time　the　seat　of　the

greatest　empire　in　the　world。　To　what　degree　such　restraints　upon

the　inland　commerce　of　this　commodity；　joined　to　the　general

prohibition　of　exportation；　must　have　discouraged　the　cultivation

of　countries　less　fertile　and　less　favourably　circumstanced；　it

is　not　perhaps　very　easy　to　imagine。　　　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　III

Of　the　Rise　and　Progress　of　Cities　and　Towns　after　the　Fall　of

the　Roman　Empire　





　　　　　THE　inhabitants　of　cities　and　towns　were；　after　the　fall　of

the　Roman　empire；　not　more　favoured　than　those　of　the　country。

They　consisted；　indeed；　of　a　very　different　order　of　people　from

the　first　inhabitants　of　the　ancient　republics　of　Greece　and

Italy。　These　last　were　composed　chiefly　of　the　proprietors　of

lands；　among　whom　the　public　territory　was　originally　divided；

and　who　found　it　convenient　to　build　their　houses　in　the

neighbourhood　of　one　another；　and　to　surround　them　with　a　wall；

for　the　sake　of　common　defence。　After　the　fall　of　the　Roman

empire；　on　the　contrary；　the　proprietors　of　land　seem　generally

to　have　lived　in　fortified　castles　on　their　own　estates；　and　in

the　midst　of　their　own　tenants　and　dependants。　The　towns　were

chiefly　inhabited　by　tradesmen　and　mechanics；　who　seem　in　those

days　to　have　been　of　servile；　or　very　nearly　of　servile

condition。　The　privileges　which　we　find　granted　by　ancient

charters　to　the　inhabitants　of　some　of　the　principal　towns　in

Europe　sufficiently　show　what　they　were　before　those　grants。　The

people　to　whom　it　is　granted　as　a　privilege　that　they　might　give

away　their　own　daughters　in　marriage　without　the　consent　of　their

lord；　that　upon　their　death　their　own　children；　and　not　their

lord；　should　succeed　to　their　goods；　and　that　they　might　dispose

of　their　own　effects　by　will；　must；　before　those　grants；　have

been　either　altogether　or　very　nearly　in　the　same　state　of

villanage　with　the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country。

　　　　　They　seem；　indeed；　to　have　been　a　very　poor；　mean　set　of

people；　who　used　to　travel　about　with　their　goods　from　place　to

place；　and　from　fair　to　fair；　like　the　hawkers　and　pedlars　of　the

present　times。　In　all　the　different　countries　of　Europe　then；　in

the　same　manner　as　in　several　of　the　Tartar　governments　of　Asia

at　present；　taxes　used　to　be　levied　upon　the　persons　and　goods　of

travellers　when　they　passed　through　certain　manors；　when　they

went　over　certain　bridges；　when　they　carried　about　their　goods

from　place　to　place　in　a　fair；　when　they　erected　in　it　a　booth　or

stall　to　sell　them　in。　These　different　taxes　were　known　in

England　by　the　names　of　passage；　pontage；　lastage；　and　stallage。

Sometimes　the　king；　sometimes　a　great　lord；　who　had；　it　seems；

upon　some　occasions；　authority　to　do　this；　would　grant　to

particular　traders；　to　such　particularly　as　lived　in　their　own

demesnes；　a　general　exemption　from　such　taxes。　Such　traders；

though　in　other　respects　of　servile；　or　very　nearly　of　servile

condition；　were　upon　this　account　called　free…traders。　They　in

return　usually　paid　to　their　protector　a　sort　of　annual　poll…tax。

In　those　days　protection　was　seldom　granted　without　a　valuable

consideration；　and　this　tax　might；　perhaps；　be　considered　as

compensation　for　what　their　patrons　might　lose　by　their　exemption

from　other　taxes。　At　first；　both　those　poll…taxes　and　those

exemptions　seem　to　have　been　altogether　personal；　and　to　have

affected　only　particular　individuals　during　either　their　lives　or

the　pleasure　of　their　protectors。　In　the　very　imperfect　accounts

which　have　been　published　from　Domesday　Book　of　several　of　the

towns　of　England；　mention　is　frequently　made　sometimes　of　the　tax

which　particular　burghers　paid；　each　of　them；　either　to　the　king

or　to　some　other　great　lord　for　this　sort　of　protection；　and

sometimes　of　the　general　amount　only　of　all　those　taxes。

　　　　　But　how　servile　soever　may　have　been　originally　the

condition　of　the　inhabitants　of　the　towns；　it　appears　evidently

that　they　arrived　at　liberty　and　independency　much　earlier　than

the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country。　That　part　of　the　king's

revenue　which　arose　from　such　poll…taxes　in　any　particular　town

used　commonly　to　be　let　in　farm　during　a　term　of　years　for　a　rent

certain；　sometimes　to　the　sheriff　of　the　county；　and　sometimes　to

other　persons。　Th