wealbk03-第8章

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of　disposing　of　him　in　marriage；　provided　it　was　in　a　manner　not

unsuitable　to　his　rank。　But　though　this　institution　necessarily

tended　to　strengthen　the　authority　of　the　king；　and　to　weaken

that　of　the　great　proprietors；　it　could　not　do　either

sufficiently　for　establishing　order　and　good　government　among　the

inhabitants　of　the　country；　because　it　could　not　alter

sufficiently　that　state　of　property　and　manners　from　which　the

disorders　arose。　The　authority　of　government　still　continued　to

be；　as　before；　too　weak　in　the　head　and　too　strong　in　the

inferior　members；　and　the　excessive　strength　of　the　inferior

members　was　the　cause　of　the　weakness　of　the　head。　After　the

institution　of　feudal　subordination；　the　king　was　as　incapable　of

restraining　the　violence　of　the　great　lords　as　before。　They　still

continued　to　make　war　according　to　their　own　discretion；　almost

continually　upon　one　another；　and　very　frequently　upon　the　king；

and　the　open　country　still　continued　to　be　a　scene　of　violence；

rapine；　and　disorder。

　　　　　But　what　all　the　violence　of　the　feudal　institutions　could

never　have　effected；　the　silent　and　insensible　operation　of

foreign　commerce　and　manufactures　gradually　brought　about。　These

gradually　furnished　the　great　proprietors　with　something　for

which　they　could　exchange　the　whole　surplus　produce　of　their

lands；　and　which　they　could　consume　themselves　without　sharing　it

either　with　tenants　or　retainers。　All　for　ourselves　and　nothing

for　other　people；　seems；　in　every　age　of　the　world；　to　have　been

the　vile　maxim　of　the　masters　of　mankind。　As　soon；　therefore；　as

they　could　find　a　method　of　consuming　the　whole　value　of　their

rents　themselves；　they　had　no　disposition　to　share　them　with　any

other　persons。　For　a　pair　of　diamond　buckles；　perhaps；　or　for

something　as　frivolous　and　useless；　they　exchanged　the

maintenance；　or　what　is　the　same　thing；　the　price　of　the

maintenance　of　a　thousand　men　for　a　year；　and　with　it　the　whole

weight　and　authority　which　it　could　give　them。　The　buckles；

however；　were　to　be　all　their　own；　and　no　other　human　creature

was　to　have　any　share　of　them；　whereas　in　the　more　ancient　method

of　expense　they　must　have　shared　with　at　least　a　thousand　people。

With　the　judges　that　were　to　determine　the　preference　this

difference　was　perfectly　decisive；　and　thus；　for　the

gratification　of　the　most　childish；　the　meanest；　and　the　most

sordid　of　all　vanities；　they　gradually　bartered　their　whole　power

and　authority。

　　　　　In　a　country　where　there　is　no　foreign　commerce；　nor　any　of

the　finer　manufactures；　a　man　of　ten　thousand　a　year　cannot　well

employ　his　revenue　in　any　other　way　than　in　maintaining；　perhaps；

a　thousand　families；　who　are　all　of　them　necessarily　at　his

command。　In　the　present　state　of　Europe；　a　man　of　ten　thousand　a

year　can　spend　his　whole　revenue；　and　he　generally　does　so；

without　directly　maintaining　twenty　people；　or　being　able　to

command　more　than　ten　footmen　not　worth　the　commanding。

Indirectly；　perhaps；　he　maintains　as　great　or　even　a　greater

number　of　people　than　he　could　have　done　by　the　ancient　method　of

expense。　For　though　the　quantity　of　precious　productions　for

which　he　exchanges　his　whole　revenue　be　very　small；　the　number　of

workmen　employed　in　collecting　and　preparing　it　must　necessarily

have　been　very　great。　Its　great　price　generally　arises　from　the

wages　of　their　labour；　and　the　profits　of　all　their　immediate

employers。　By　paying　that　price　he　indirectly　pays　all　those

wages　and　profits　and　thus　indirectly　contributes　to　the

maintenance　of　all　the　workmen　and　their　employers。　He　generally

contributes；　however；　but　a　very　small　proportion　to　that　of

each；　to　very　few　perhaps　a　tenth；　to　many　not　a　hundredth；　and

to　some　not　a　thousandth；　nor　even　a　ten…thousandth　part　of　their

whole　annual　maintenance。　Though　he　contributes；　therefore；　to

the　maintenance　of　them　all；　they　are　all　more　or　less

independent　of　him；　because　generally　they　can　all　be　maintained

without　him。

　　　　　When　the　great　proprietors　of　land　spend　their　rents　in

maintaining　their　tenants　and　retainers；　each　of　them　maintains

entirely　all　his　own　tenants　and　all　his　own　retainers。　But　when

they　spend　them　in　maintaining　tradesmen　and　artificers；　they

may；　all　of　them　taken　together；　perhaps；　maintain　as　great；　or；

on　account　of　the　waste　which　attends　rustic　hospitality；　a

greater　number　of　people　than　before。　Each　of　them；　however；

taken　singly；　contributes　often　but　a　very　small　share　to　the

maintenance　of　any　individual　of　this　greater　number。　Each

tradesman　or　artificer　derives　his　subsistence　from　the

employment；　not　of　one；　but　of　a　hundred　or　a　thousand　different

customers。　Though　in　some　measure　obliged　to　them　all；　therefore；

he　is　not　absolutely　dependent　upon　any　one　of　them。

　　　　　The　personal　expense　of　the　great　proprietors　having　in　this

manner　gradually　increased；　it　was　impossible　that　the　number　of

their　retainers　should　not　as　gradually　diminish　till　they　were

at　last　dismissed　altogether。　The　same　cause　gradually　led　them

to　dismiss　the　unnecessary　part　of　their　tenants。　Farms　were

enlarged；　and　the　occupiers　of　land；　notwithstanding　the

complaints　of　depopulation；　reduced　to　the　number　necessary　for

cultivating　it；　according　to　the　imperfect　state　of　cultivation

and　improvement　in　those　times。　By　the　removal　of　the　unnecessary

mouths；　and　by　exacting　from　the　farmer　the　full　value　of　the

farm；　a　greater　surplus；　or　what　is　the　same　thing；　the　price　of

a　greater　surplus；　was　obtained　for　the　proprietor；　which　the

merchants　and　manufacturers　soon　furnished　him　with　a　method　of

spending　upon　his　own　person　in　the　same　manner　as　he　had　done

the　rest。　The　same　cause　continuing　to　operate；　he　was　desirous

to　raise　his　rents　above　what　his　lands；　in　the　actual　state　of

their　improvement；　could　afford。　His　tenants　could　agree　to　this

upon　one　condition　only；　that　they　should　be　secured　in　their

possession　for　such　a　term　of　years　as　might　give　them　time　to

recover　with　profit　whatever　they　should　lay　out　in　the　further

improvement　of　the　land。　The　expensive　vanity　of　the　landlord

made　him　willing　to　accept　of　this　condition；　and　hence　the

origin　of　long　leases。

　　　　　Even　a　tenant　at　will；　who　pays　the　full　value　of　the　land；

is　not　altogether　dependent　upon　the　landlord。　The　pecuniary

advantages　which　they　receive　from　one　another　are　mutual　and

equal；　and　such　a　tenant　will　expose　neither　his　life　nor　his

fortune　in　the　service　of　the　proprietor。　But　if　he　has　a　lease

for　a　long　term　of　years；　he　is　altogether　independent；　and　his

landlord　must　not　expect　from　him　the　most　trifling　service

beyond　what　is　either　expressly　stipulated　in　the　lease　or

imposed　upon　him　by　the　common　and　known　law　of　the　country。

　　　　　The　tenants　having　in　this　manner　become　independent；　and

the　retainers　being　dismissed；　the　great　proprietors　were　no

longer　capable　of　interrupting　the　regular　execution　of　justice

or　of　disturbing　the　peace　of　the　country。　Having　sold　their

birthright；　not　like　Esau　for　a　mess　of　pottage　in　time　of　hunger

and　necessity；　but　in　the　wantonness　of　plenty；　for　trinkets　and

baubles；　fitter　to　be　the　playthings　of　children　than　the　serious

pursuits　of　men；　they　became　as　insignificant　as　any　substantial

burgher　or　tradesman　in　a　city。　A　regular　government　was

established　in　the　country　as　well　as　in　the　city；　nobody　having

sufficient　power　to　disturb　its　operations　in　the　one　any　more

than　in　the　other。

　　　　　It　does　not；　perhaps；　relate　to　the　present　subject；　but　I

cannot　help　remarking　it；　that　very　old　families；　such　as　have

possessed　some　considerable　estate　from　father　to　son　for　many

successive　generations　are　very　rare　in　commercial　countries。　In

countries　which　have　little　commerce；　on　the　contrary；　such　as

Wales　or　the　highlands　of　Scotland；　they　are　very　common。　The

Arabian　histories　seem　to　be　all　full　of　genealogies；　and　there

is　a　history　written　by　a　Tartar　Khan；　which　has　been　translated

into　several　European　languages；　and　which　contains　scarce

anything　else；　a　proof　that　ancient　families　are　very　common

among　those　nations。　In　countries　where　a　rich　man　can　spend　his

revenue　in　no　other　way　than　by　maintaining　as　many　people　as　it

can　maintain；　he　is　not　apt　to　run　out；　and　his　benevolence　it

seems　is　seldom　so　violent　as　to　attempt　to　maintain　more　than　he

can　afford。　But　where　he　can　spend　the　greatest　revenue　upon　his

own　person；　he　frequently　has　no　bounds　to　his　expense；　because

he　frequently　has　no　bounds　to　his　vanity　or　to　his　affection　for

his　own　person。　In　commercial　countries；　therefore；　riches；　in

spite　of　the　most　violent　regulations　of　law　to　prevent　their

dissipation；　very　seldom　remain　long　in　the　same　family。　Among

simple　nations；　on　the　contrary；　they　frequently　do　without　any

regulations　of　law；　for　among　nations　of　shepherds；　such　as　the

Tartars　and　Arabs；　the　consumable　nature　of　their　property

necessarily　renders　all　such　regulations　impossible。

　　　　　A　revolution　of　the　greatest　importance　to　the　public

happiness　was　in　this　manner　brought　about　by　two　different

orders　of　people　who　had　not　the　least　intention　to　serve　the

public。　To　gratify　the　most　childish　vanity　was　the　sole　motive

of　the　great　proprietors。　The　merchants　and　artificers；　much　less

ridiculous；　acted　merely　from　a　view　to　their　own　interest；　and

in　pursuit　of　their　own　pedlar　principle　of　turning　a　penny

wherever　a　penny　was　to　be　got。　Neither　of　them　had　either

knowledge　or　foresight　of　that　great　revolution　which　the　folly

of　the　one；　and　the　industry　of　the　other；　was　gradually　bringing

about。

　　　　　It　is　thus　that　through　the　greater　part　of　Europe　the

commerce　and　manufactures　of　cities；　instead　of　being　the　effect；

have　been　the　cause　and　occasion　of　the　improvement　and

cultivation　of　the　country。

　　　　　This　order；　however；　being　contrary　to　the　natural　course　of

things；　is　necessarily　both　slow　and　uncertain。　Compare　the　slow

progress　of　those　European　countries　of　which　the　wealth　depends

very　much　upon　their　commerce　and　manufactures　with　the　rapid

advances　of　our　North　American　colonies；　of　which　the　wealth　is

founded　altogether　in　agriculture。　Through　the　greater　part　of

Europe　the　number　of　inhabitants　is　not　supposed　to　double　in

less　than　five　hundred　years。　In　several　of　our　North　American

colonies；　it　is　found　to　double　in　twenty　or　five…and…twenty

years。　In　Europe；　the　law　of　primogeniture　and　perpetuities　of

different　kinds　prevent　the　division　of　great　estates；　and

thereby　hinder　the　multiplication　of　small　proprietors。　A　small

proprietor；　however；　who　knows　every　part　of　his　little

territory；　who　views　it　with　all　the　affection　which　property；

especially　small　property；　naturally　inspires；　and　who　upon　that

account　takes　pleasure　not　only　in　cultivating　but　in　adorning

it；　is　generally　of　all　improvers　the　most　industrious；　the　most

intelligent；　and　the　most　successful。　The　same　regulations；

besides；　keep　so　much　land　out　of　the　market　that　there　a