wealbk04-第56章

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correcting；　in　many　respects；　the　bad　effects　even　of　a　very

faulty　regimen。　Mr。　Quesnai；　who　was　himself　a　physician；　and　a

very　speculative　physician；　seems　to　have　entertained　a　notion　of

the　same　kind　concerning　the　political　body；　and　to　have　imagined

that　it　would　thrive　and　prosper　only　under　a　certain　precise

regimen；　the　exact　regimen　of　perfect　liberty　and　perfect

justice。　He　seems　not　to　have　considered　that；　in　the　political

body；　the　natural　effort　which　every　man　is　continually　making　to

better　his　own　condition　is　a　principle　of　preservation　capable

of　preventing　and　correcting；　in　many　respects；　the　bad　effects

of　a　political　economy；　in　some　degree；　both　partial　and

oppressive。　Such　a　political　economy；　though　it　no　doubt　retards

more　or　less；　is　not　always　capable　of　stopping　altogether　the

natural　progress　of　a　nation　towards　wealth　and　prosperity；　and

still　less　of　making　it　go　backwards。　If　a　nation　could　not

prosper　without　the　enjoyment　of　perfect　liberty　and　perfect

justice；　there　is　not　in　the　world　a　nation　which　could　ever　have

prospered。　In　the　political　body；　however；　the　wisdom　of　nature

has　fortunately　made　ample　provision　for　remedying　many　of　the

bad　effects　of　the　folly　and　injustice　of　man；　in　the　same　manner

as　it　has　done　in　the　natural　body　for　remedying　those　of　his

sloth　and　intemperance。

　　　　　The　capital　error　of　this　system；　however；　seems　to　lie　in

its　representing　the　class　of　artificers；　manufacturers；　and

merchants　as　altogether　barren　and　unproductive。　The　following

observations　may　serve　to　show　the　impropriety　of　this

representation。

　　　　　First；　this　class；　it　is　acknowledged；　reproduces　annually

the　value　of　its　own　annual　consumption；　and　continues；　at　least；

the　existence　of　the　stock　or　capital　which　maintains　and　employs

it。　But　upon　this　account　alone　the　denomination　of　barren　or

unproductive　should　seem　to　be　very　improperly　applied　to　it。　We

should　not　call　a　marriage　barren　or　unproductive　though　it

produced　only　a　son　and　a　daughter；　to　replace　the　father　and

mother；　and　though　it　did　not　increase　the　number　of　the　human

species；　but　only　continued　it　as　it　was　before。　Farmers　and

country　labourers；　indeed；　over　and　above　the　stock　which

maintains　and　employs　them；　reproduce　annually　a　net　produce；　a

free　rent　to　the　landlord。　As　a　marriage　which　affords　three

children　is　certainly　more　productive　than　one　which　affords　only

two；　so　the　labour　of　farmers　and　country　labourers　is　certainly

more　productive　than　that　of　merchants；　artificers；　and

manufacturers。　The　superior　produce　of　the　one　class；　however；

does　not　render　the　other　barren　or　unproductive。

　　　　　Secondly；　it　seems；　upon　this　account；　altogether　improper

to　consider　artificers；　manufacturers；　and　merchants　in　the　same

light　as　menial　servants。　The　labour　of　menial　servants　does　not

continue　the　existence　of　the　fund　which　maintains　and　employs

them。　Their　maintenance　and　employment　is　altogether　at　the

expense　of　their　masters；　and　the　work　which　they　perform　is　not

of　a　nature　to　repay　that　expense。　That　work　consists　in　services

which　perish　generally　in　the　very　instant　of　their　performance；

and　does　not　fix　or　realize　itself　in　any　vendible　commodity

which　can　replace　the　value　of　their　wages　and　maintenance。　The

labour；　on　the　contrary；　of　artificers；　manufacturers；　and

merchants　naturally　does　fix　and　realize　itself　in　some　such

vendible　commodity。　It　is　upon　this　account　that；　in　the　chapter

in　which　I　treat　of　productive　and　unproductive　labour；　I　have

classed　artificers；　manufacturers；　and　merchants　among　the

productive　labourers；　and　menial　servants　among　the　barren　or

unproductive。

　　　　　Thirdly；　it　seems　upon　every　supposition　improper　to　say

that　the　labour　of　artificers；　manufacturers；　and　merchants　does

not　increase　the　real　revenue　of　the　society。　Though　we　should

suppose；　for　example；　as　it　seems　to　be　supposed　in　this　system；

that　the　value　of　the　daily；　monthly；　and　yearly　consumption　of

this　class　was　exactly　equal　to　that　of　its　daily；　monthly；　and

yearly　production；　yet　it　would　not　from　thence　follow　that　its

labour　added　nothing　to　the　real　revenue；　to　the　real　value　of

the　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　the　society。　An

artificer；　for　example；　who；　in　the　first　six　months　after

harvest；　executes　ten　pounds'　worth　of　work；　though　he　should　in

the　same　time　consume　ten　pounds'　worth　of　corn　and　other

necessaries；　yet　really　adds　the　value　of　ten　pounds　to　the

annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　the　society。　While　he

has　been　consuming　a　half…yearly　revenue　of　ten　pounds'　worth　of

corn　and　other　necessaries；　he　has　produced　an　equal　value　of

work　capable　of　purchasing；　either　to　himself　or　some　other

person；　an　equal　half…yearly　revenue。　The　value；　therefore；　of

what　has　been　consumed　and　produced　during　these　six　months　is

equal；　not　to　ten；　but　to　twenty　pounds。　It　is　possible；　indeed；

that　no　more　than　ten　pounds'　worth　of　this　value　may　ever　have

existed　at　any　one　moment　of　time。　But　if　the　ten　pounds'　worth

of　corn　and　other　necessaties；　which　were　consumed　by　the

artificer；　had　been　consumed　by　a　soldier　or　by　a　menial　servant；

the　value　of　that　part　of　the　annual　produce　which　existed　at　the

end　of　the　six　months　would　have　been　ten　pounds　less　than　it

actually　is　in　consequence　of　the　labour　of　the　artificer。　Though

the　value　of　what　the　artificer　produces；　therefore；　should　not

at　any　one　moment　of　time　be　supposed　greater　than　the　value　he

consumes；　yet　at　every　moment　of　time　the　actually　existing　value

of　goods　in　the　market　is；　in　consequence　of　what　he　produces；

greater　than　it　otherwise　would　be。

　　　　　When　the　patrons　of　this　system　assert　that　the　consumption

of　artificers；　manufacturers；　and　merchants　is　equal　to　the　value

of　what　they　produce；　they　probably　mean　no　more　than　that　their

revenue；　or　the　fund　destined　for　their　consumption；　is　equal　to

it。　But　if　they　had　expressed　themselves　more　accurately；　and

only　asserted　that　the　revenue　of　this　class　was　equal　to　the

value　of　what　they　produced；　it　might　readily　have　occurred　to

the　reader　that　what　would　naturally　be　saved　out　of　this　revenue

must　necessarily　increase　more　or　less　the　real　wealth　of　the

society。　In　order；　therefore；　to　make　out　something　like　an

argument；　it　was　necessary　that　they　should　express　themselves　as

they　have　done；　and　this　argument；　even　supposing　things　actually

were　as　it　seems　to　presume　them　to　be；　turns　out　to　be　a　very

inconclusive　one。

　　　　　Fourthly；　farmers　and　country　labourers　can　no　more　augment；

without　parsimony；　the　real　revenue；　the　annual　produce　of　the

land　and　labour　of　their　society；　than　artificers；　manufacturers；

and　merchants。　The　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　any

society　can　be　augmented　only　in　two　ways；　either；　first；　by　some

improvement　in　the　productive　powers　of　the　useful　labour

actually　maintained　within　it；　or；　secondly；　by　some　increase　in

the　quantity　of　that　labour。

　　　　　The　improvement　in　the　productive　powers　of　useful　labour

depend；　first；　upon　the　improvement　in　the　ability　of　the

workman；　and；　secondly；　upon　that　of　the　machinery　with　which　he

works。　But　the　labour　of　artificers　and　manufacturers；　as　it　is

capable　of　being　more　subdivided；　and　the　labour　of　each　workman

reduced　to　a　greater　simplicity　of　operation　than　that　of　farmers

and　country　labourers；　so　it　is　likewise　capable　of　both　these

sorts　of　improvements　in　a　much　higher　degree。　In　this　respect；

therefore；　the　class　of　cultivators　can　have　no　sort　of　advantage

over　that　of　artificers　and　manufacturers。

　　　　　The　increase　in　the　quantity　of　useful　labour　actually

employed　within　any　society　must　depend　altogether　upon　the

increase　of　the　capital　which　employs　it；　and　the　increase　of

that　capital　again　must　be　exactly　equal　to　the　amount　of　the

savings　from　the　revenue；　either　of　the　particular　persons　who

manage　and　direct　the　employment　of　that　capital；　or　of　some

other　persons　who　lend　it　to　them。　If　merchants；　artificers；　and

manufacturers　are；　as　this　system　seems　to　suppose；　naturally

more　inclined　to　parsimony　and　saving　than　proprietors　and

cultivators；　they　are；　so　far；　more　likely　to　augment　the

quantity　of　useful　labour　employed　within　their　society；　and

consequently　to　increase　its　real　revenue；　the　annual　produce　of

its　land　and　labour。

　　　　　Fifthly　and　lastly；　though　the　revenue　of　the　inhabitants　of

every　country　was　supposed　to　consist　altogether；　as　this　system

seems　to　suppose；　in　the　quantity　of　subsistence　which　their

industry　could　procure　to　them；　yet；　even　upon　this　supposition；

the　revenue　of　a　trading　and　manufacturing　country　must；　other

things　being　equal；　always　be　much　greater　than　that　of　one

without　trade　or　manufactures。　By　means　of　trade　and

manufactures；　a　greater　quantity　of　subsistence　can　be　annually

imported　into　a　particular　country　than　what　its　own　lands；　in

the　actual　state　of　their　cultivation；　could　afford。　The

inhabitants　of　a　town；　though　they　frequently　possess　no　lands　of

their　own；　yet　draw　to　themselves　by　their　industry　such　a

quantity　of　the　rude　produce　of　the　lands　of　other　people　as

supplies　them；　not　only　with　the　materials　of　their　work；　but

with　the　fund　of　their　subsistence。　What　a　town　always　is　with

regard　to　the　country　in　its　neighbourhood；　one　independent　state

or　country　may　frequently　be　with　regard　to　other　independent

states　or　countries。　It　is　thus　that　Holland　draws　a　great　part

of　its　subsistence　from　other　countries；　live　cattle　from

Holstein　and　Jutland；　and　corn　from　almost　all　the　different

countries　of　Europe。　A　small　quantity　of　manufactured　produce

purchases　a　great　quantity　of　rude　produce。　A　trading　and

manufacturing　country；　therefore；　naturally　purchases　with　a

small　part　of　its　manufactured　produce　a　great　part　of　the　rude

produce　of　other　countries；　while；　on　the　contrary；　a　country

without　trade　and　manufactures　is　generally　obliged　to　purchase；

at　the　expense　of　a　great　part　of　its　rude　produce；　a　very　small

part　of　the　manufactured　produce　of　other　countries。　The　one

exports　what　can　subsist　and　accommodate　but　a　very　few；　and

imports　the　subsistence　and　accommodation　of　a　great　number。　The

other　exports　the　accommodation　and　subsistence　of　a　great

number；　and　imports　that　of　a　very　few　only。　The　inhabitants　of

the　one　must　always　enjoy　a　much　greater　quantity　of　subsistence

than　what　their　own　lands；　in　the　actual　state　of　their

cultivation；　could　afford。　The　inhabitants　of　the　other　must

always　enjoy　a　much　smaller　quantity。

　　　　　This　system；　however；　with　all　its　imperfections　is；

perhaps；　the　nearest　approximation　to　the　truth　that　has　yet　been

published　upon　the　subject　of　political　economy；　and　is　upon　that

account　well　worth　the　consideration　of　every　man　who　wishes　to

examine　with　attention　the　principles　of　that　very　important

science。　Though　in　representing　the　labour　which　is　employed　upon

land　as　the　only　productive　labour；　the