wealbk04-第58章

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confinement　of　the　foreign　market　was　in　some　measure　compensated

by　the　conveniency　of　many　inland　navigations；　which　opened；　in

the　most　advantageous　manner；　the　whole　extent　of　the　home　market

to　every　part　of　the　produce　of　every　different　district　of　those

countries。　The　great　extent　of　Indostan；　too；　rendered　the　home

market　of　that　country　very　great；　and　sufficient　to　support　a

great　variety　of　manufactures。　But　the　small　extent　of　ancient

Egypt；　which　was　never　equal　to　England；　must　at　all　times　have

rendered　the　home　market　of　that　country　too　narrow　for

supporting　any　great　variety　of　manufactures。　Bengal；

accordingly；　the　province　of　Indostan；　which　commonly　exports　the

greatest　quantity　of　rice；　has　always　been　more　remarkable　for

the　exportation　of　a　great　variety　of　manufactures　than　for　that

of　its　grain。　Ancient　Egypt；　on　the　contrary；　though　it　exported

some　manufactures；　fine　linen　in　particular；　as　well　as　some

other　goods；　was　always　most　distinguished　for　its　great

exportation　of　grain。　It　was　long　the　granary　of　the　Roman

empire。

　　　　　The　sovereigns　of　China；　of　ancient　Egypt；　and　of　the

different　kingdoms　into　which　Indostan　has　at　different　times

been　divided；　have　always　derived　the　whole；　or　by　far　the　most

considerable　part；　of　their　revenue　from　some　sort　of　land　tax　or

land　rent。　This　land　tax　or　land　rent；　like　the　tithe　in　Europe；

consisted　in　a　certain　proportion；　a　fifth；　it　is　said；　of　the

produce　of　the　land；　which　was　either　delivered　in　kind；　or　paid

in　money；　according　to　a　certain　valuation；　and　which　therefore

varied　from　year　to　year　according　to　all　the　variations　of　the

produce。　It　was　natural　therefore　that　the　sovereigns　of　those

countries　should　be　particularly　attentive　to　the　interests　of

agriculture；　upon　the　prosperity　or　declension　of　which

immediately　depended　the　yearly　increase　or　diminution　of　their

own　revenue。

　　　　　The　policy　of　the　ancient　republics　of　Greece；　and　that　of

Rome；　though　it　honoured　agriculture　more　than　manufactures　or

foreign　trade；　yet　seems　rather　to　have　discouraged　the　latter

employments　than　to　have　given　any　direct　or　intentional

encouragement　to　the　former。　In　several　of　the　ancient　states　of

Greece；　foreign　trade　was　prohibited　altogether；　and　in　several

others　the　employments　of　artificers　and　manufacturers　were

considered　as　hurtful　to　the　strength　and　agility　of　the　human

body；　as　rendering　it　incapable　of　those　habits　which　their

military　and　gymnastic　exercises　endeavoured　to　form　in　it；　and

as　thereby　disqualifying　it　more　or　less　for　undergoing　the

fatigues　and　encountering　the　dangers　of　war。　Such　occupations

were　considered　as　fit　only　for　slaves；　and　the　free　citizens　of

the　state　were　prohibited　from　exercising　them。　Even　in　those

states　where　no　such　prohibition　took　place；　as　in　Rome　and

Athens；　the　great　body　of　the　people　were　in　effect　excluded　from

all　the　trades　which　are；　now　commonly　exercised　by　the　lower

sort　of　the　inhabitants　of　towns。　Such　trades　were；　at　Athens　and

Rome；　all　occupied　by　the　slaves　of　the　rich；　who　exercised　them

for　the　benefit　of　their　masters；　whose　wealth；　power；　and

protection　made　it　almost　impossible　for　a　poor　freeman　to　find　a

market　for　his　work；　when　it　came　into　competition　with　that　of

the　slaves　of　the　rich。　Slaves；　however；　are　very　seldom

inventive；　and　all　the　most　important　improvements；　either　in

machinery；　or　in　the　arrangement　and　distribution　of　work　which

facilitate　and　abridge　labour；　have　been　the　discoveries　of

freemen。　Should　a　slave　propose　any　improvement　of　this　kind；　his

master　would　be　very　apt　to　consider　the　proposal　as　the

suggestion　of　laziness；　and　a　desire　to　save　his　own　labour　at

the　master's　expense。　The　poor　slave；　instead　of　reward；　would

probably　meet　with　much　abuse；　perhaps　with　some　punishment。　In

the　manufactures　carried　on　by　slaves；　therefore；　more　labour

must　generally　have　been　employed　to　execute　the　same　quantity　of

work　than　in　those　carried　on　by　freemen。　The　work　of　the　former

must；　upon　that　account；　generally　have　been　dearer　than　that　of

the　latter。　The　Hungarian　mines；　it　is　remarked　by　Mr。

Montesquieu；　though　not　richer；　have　always　been　wrought　with

less　expense；　and　therefore　with　more　profit；　than　the　Turkish

mines　in　their　neighbourhood。　The　Turkish　mines　are　wrought　by

slaves；　and　the　arms　of　those　slaves　are　the　only　machines　which

the　Turks　have　ever　thought　of　employing。　The　Hungarian　mines　are

wrought　by　freemen；　who　employ　a　great　deal　of　machinery；　by

which　they　facilitate　and　abridge　their　own　labour。　From　the　very

little　that　is　known　about　the　price　of　manufactures　in　the　times

of　the　Greeks　and　Romans；　it　would　appear　that　those　of　the　finer

sort　were　excessively　dear。　Silk　sold　for　its　weight　in　gold。　It

was　not；　indeed；　in　those　times　a　European　manufacture；　and　as　it

was　all　brought　from　the　East　Indies；　the　distance　of　the

carriage　may　in　some　measure　account　for　the　greatness　of　price。

The　price；　however；　which　a　lady；　it　is　said；　would　sometimes　pay

for　a　piece　of　very　fine　linen；　seems　to　have　been　equally

extravagant；　and　as　linen　was　always　either　a　European；　or　at

farthest；　an　Egyptian　manufacture；　this　high　price　can　be

accounted　for　only　by　the　great　expense　of　the　labour　which　must

have　been　employed　about　it；　and　the　expense　of　this　labour　again

could　arise　from　nothing　but　the　awkwardness　of　the　machinery

which　it　made　use　of。　The　price　of　fine　woollens　too；　though　not

quite　so　extravagant；　seems　however　to　have　been　much　above　that

of　the　present　times。　Some　cloths；　we　are　told　by　Pliny；　dyed　in

a　particular　manner；　cost　a　hundred　denarii；　or　three　pounds　six

shillings　and　eightpence　the　pound　weight。　Others　dyed　in　another

manner　cost　a　thousand　denarii　the　pound　weight；　or　thirty…three

pounds　six　shillings　and　eightpence。　The　Roman　pound；　it　must　be

remembered；　contained　only　twelve　of　our　avoirdupois　ounces。　This

high　price；　indeed；　seems　to　have　been　principally　owing　to　the

dye。　But　had　not　the　cloths　themselves　been　much　dearer　than　any

which　are　made　in　the　present　times；　so　very　expensive　a　dye

would　not　probably　have　been　bestowed　upon　them。　The

disproportion　would　have　been　too　great　between　the　value　of　the

accessory　and　that　of　the　principal。　The　price　mentioned　by　the

same　author　of　some　Triclinaria；　a　sort　of　woollen　pillows　or

cushions　made　use　of　to　lean　upon　as　they　reclined　upon　their

couches　at　table；　passes　all　credibility；　some　of　them　being　said

to　have　cost　more　than　thirty　thousand；　others　more　than　three

hundred　thousand　pounds。　This　high　price；　too；　is　not　said　to

have　arisen　from　the　dye。　In　the　dress　of　the　people　of　fashion

of　both　sexes　there　seems　to　have　been　much　less　variety；　it　is

observed　by　Doctor　Arbuthnot；　in　ancient　than　in　modern　times；

and　the　very　little　variety　which　we　find　in　that　of　the　ancient

statues　confirms　his　observation。　He　infers　from　this　that　their

dress　must　upon　the　whole　have　been　cheaper　than　ours；　but　the

conclusion　does　not　seem　to　follow。　When　the　expense　of

fashionable　dress　is　very　great；　the　variety　must　be　very　small。

But　when；　by　the　improvements　in　the　productive　powers　of

manufacturing　art　and　industry；　the　expense　of　any　one　dress

comes　to　be　very　moderate；　the　variety　will　naturally　be　very

great。　The　rich；　not　being　able　to　distinguish　themselves　by　the

expense　of　any　one　dress；　will　naturally　endeavour　to　do　so　by

the　multitude　and　variety　of　their　dresses。

　　　　　The　greatest　and　most　important　branch　of　the　commerce　of

every　nation；　it　has　already　been　observed；　is　that　which　is

carried　on　between　the　inhabitants　of　the　town　and　those　of　the

country。　The　inhabitants　of　the　town　draw　from　the　country　the

rude　produce　which　constitutes　both　the　materials　of　their　work

and　the　fund　of　their　subsistence；　and　they　pay　for　this　rude

produce　by　sending　back　to　the　country　a　certain　portion　of　it

manufactured　and　prepared　for　immediate　use。　The　trade　which　is

carried　on　between　these　two　different　sets　of　people　consists

ultimately　in　a　certain　quantity　of　rude　produce　exchanged　for　a

certain　quantity　of　manufactured　produce。　The　dearer　the　latter；

therefore；　the　cheaper　the　former；　and　whatever　tends　in　any

country　to　raise　the　price　of　manufactured　produce　tends　to　lower

that　of　the　rude　produce　of　the　land；　and　thereby　to　discourage

agriculture。　The　smaller　the　quantity　of　manufactured　produce

which　in　any　given　quantity　of　rude　produce；　or；　what　comes　to

the　same　thing；　which　the　price　of　any　given　quantity　of　rude

produce　is　capable　of　purchasing；　the　smaller　the　exchangeable

value　of　that　given　quantity　of　rude　produce；　the　smaller　the

encouragement　which　either　the　landlord　has　to　increase　its

quantity　by　improving　or　the　farmer　by　cultivating　the　land。

Whatever；　besides；　tends　to　diminish　in　any　country　the　number　of

artificers　and　manufacturers；　tends　to　diminish　the　home　market；

the　most　important　of　all　markets　for　the　rude　produce　of　the

land；　and　thereby　still　further　to　discourage　agriculture。

　　　　　Those　systems；　therefore；　which；　preferring　agriculture　to

all　other　employments；　in　order　to　promote　it；　impose　restraints

upon　manufactures　and　foreign　trade；　act　contrary　to　the　very　end

which　they　propose；　and　indirectly　discourage　that　very　species

of　industry　which　they　mean　to　promote。　They　are　so　far；　perhaps；

more　inconsistent　than　even　the　mercantile　system。　That　system；

by　encouraging　manufactures　and　foreign　trade　more　than

agriculture；　turns　a　certain　portion　of　the　capital　of　the

society　from　supporting　a　more　advantageous；　to　support　a　less

advantageous　species　of　industry。　But　still　it　really　and　in　the

end　encourages　that　species　of　industry　which　it　means　to

promote。　Those　agricultural　systems；　on　the　contrary；　really　and

in　the　end　discourage　their　own　favourite　species　of　industry。

　　　　　It　is　thus　that　every　system　which　endeavours；　either　by

extraordinary　encouragements　to　draw　towards　a　particular　species

of　industry　a　greater　share　of　the　capital　of　the　society　than

what　would　naturally　go　to　it；　or；　by　extraordinary　restraints；

force　from　a　particular　species　of　industry　some　share　of　the

capital　which　would　otherwise　be　employed　in　it；　is　in　reality

subversive　of　the　great　purpose　which　it　means　to　promote。　It

retards；　instead　of　accelerating；　the　progress　of　the　society

towards　real　wealth　and　greatness；　and　diminishes；　instead　of

increasing；　the　real　value　of　the　annual　produce　of　its　land　and

labour。

　　　　　All　systems　either　of　preference　or　of　restraint；　therefore；

being　thus　completely　taken　away；　the　obvious　and　simple　system

of　natural　liberty　establishes　itself　of　its　own　accord。　Every

man；　as　long　as　he　does　not　violate　the　laws　of　justice；　is　left

perfectly　free　to　pursue　his　own　interest　his　own　way；　and　to

bring　both　his　industry　and　capital　into　competition　with　those

of　any　other　man；　or　order　of　men。　The　sovereign　is　completely

discharged　from　a　duty；　in　the　attempting　to